Human Rights Violation of Biharis in Bangladesh Essay

Statement of the task Bangladesh is an impoverished pastoral of over 160 i thousand thousand wad. In its short history as an independent nation, Bangladesh has spunkd a major civil war, massive informal displacement, famines and frequent natural disasters. In addition, Bangladesh is hosting over 500,000 Biharis and in recent eld it know the disciplineity rights of large numbers of Urdu-speaking minority.About half a million Urdu speaking people cognize as in Bangladesh as Bihari or Stranded Pakistanis currently live in 66 camps spread each(prenominal) over the sphere. They begin become a b atomic number 18(a)ly displaced community since 1971. The initiation of Bangladesh in 1971 put these people in a stateless item. Although they ar residing in refugee camps, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) does non recognize them as refugees. Therefore, they be deprived of the benefits and opportunities extended to the refugees by the UNHCR. As a consequ ence, the stranded Biharis in Bangladesh face multiple problems. Despite this recent progress, however, 37 years of non- learning sop up left the Biharis financial backing in abject poverty and vulnerable to distinction. human existences rights violation of stranded Biharis in our country is common scenery. These people be in the museum of exploitation. The Bihari camps be mainly in urban areas and are gravel at by severe overcrowding, poor sanitation and lack of basic facilities. The pass like conditions in these fixtlements have worsened over the years as the population has grown. With inadequate provision for clean water, waste disposal and sewerage systems, they are chronic hygiene problems. summer camp residents face discrimination in the job market and a severe lack of education and health- explosive charge facilities hampers community development.Read moreEssay About Bangladesh Liberation fightDiscrimination and poverty are the key elements that lead to anti n eighborly activities They are unagitated denied access to a Bangladeshi passport. No NGOs or UN agencies have taken the initiative to collect comprehensive baseline entropy from which to develop around(prenominal) short- and long full term programmes for the social and economic reformation of this community. In spite of getting citizenship document no changes have been make in the everyday sprightliness of camps as well as system and the policy of the disposal seems to be unchanged. What does it mean are Biharis non citizens in the bear upon of Digital Bangladesh that their national ID card and citizenship documents are not enough to rotate them citizen?As a conscious citizen of Bangladesh and also as a student of Peace and Conflict Studies Department, I am very much interested in this field for doing a fruitful research. Because, I think at present time, this stranded Biharis is a great national concerning issue. If they remain marginal for a long time, our national sec urity might be hampered and they crapper pose a serious threat to our socio- economic development. So in my research, I would like to focus that their current situation must be improved through the various initiatives of state Government, NGOs and some another(prenominal) supranational Organizations.1.1 circumstance of the StudyThe case of the Biharis in Bangladesh is divers(prenominal) from other cases of denial of citizenship because the governing body considered them as a foreign group of various(prenominal)s that ought to return to Pakistan. In fact Biharis never resided in Pakistan, but in the beginning entered eastside Pakistan as refugees fleeing India at the time of its accession to independence. Their movement to eastern Pakistan was due to a need to escape from communal bloodshed and to preserve their Islamic way of life. They also saw Hijrat (migration) as an escape from the possibility of brisk in a Hindu majority India.Actu totallyy, the history of the Bih ari goes back to the partition of India in 1947. During the period of united Pakistan (1947-1971), the Urdu-speaking Biharis were not incorporated with in the society of eastern hemisphere Pakistan and remained as a distinct cultural-linguistic group. They generally associated and identified themselves with the double-u Pakistani society because of their cultural similarity and shared linguistic heritage. They supported the wolfram Pakistani governing leaders in the process of capturing the economic and policy-making power in East Pakistan. The Biharis consequently, enjoyed government patronage and preferential preaching in various sectors of the East Pakistan economy.Initially the arrival of Biharis and the substantiating discrimination of the Pakistan Government in terms of refugee rehabilitation were not resented by the Bengalis. that, the positive attitude of the Bengalis towards the Biharis was short-lived. During the Language Movement, the Biharis instead of supporting the Bengalis sided with the western Pakistani belief elite. Further, in the 1954 provincial elections and in the 1970 general elections, they extended their support to the Moslem League, which symbolized the domination of the West Pakistanis over the Bengalis. They also opposed the Bengalis license jumble and many of them actively participated in the military actions against the Bengalis in the 1971 Bangladesh Independence War.The max attitude of the Biharis and their pro-West Pakistani governmental activities culminated with the growth of an anti-Bihari sentiment among the Bengalis.The Bihari community never assimilated with the local people and maintained alliance with the West Pakistani regime against the interest of the Bengali people. When Bangladesh finally achieved independence, Bihari people treasured to go to West Pakistan, but could not do so immediately due to forking in repatriation process. This situation left them stranded in Bangladesh. They were bargaind o f repatriation to Pakistan, but this promise was never fully materialized.After the war, thousands of Biharis were willingly deported to Pakistan. The 300,000 who remained in Bangladesh moved into refugee camps set up by the International Red sweep up, a hold flights to Pakistan that never came because of diplomatic wrangling. nowadays 40 years later the stranded Biharis and their descendents are still living in these camps.In 2008, a Supreme Court decision acknowledge their nationality rights. A large percentage of the adults were registered to vote in the 2009 election. But later on decades of isolation and discrimination, they are still out from the fundamental rights for which they have been sacking their days under sub-human condition in 66 shelter camps in the country. There we see that 94% are illiterate, almost double the national rate. Despite being registered as voters and recognized as citizens, many Urdu speakers still are also unable to obtain government jobs, acc ess credit, get passports or obtain compensation for their lieu confiscated during the war. They do not have freedom of movement.1.2 Rationale of the queryStudy of human rights is considered as one of the interesting and of import courses of our Department of Peace and Conflict Studies. On the other hand, various social problems are main discussed phenomena for social researchers. In the context, the inhuman situation of Bihari people which they are experiencing in their daily lives is a count of serious concern.There is very little research findings on this field. slightly NGOs and individuals have worked on this topic such as BRAC, RMMRU (Refugee and Migratory Movements Research Unit) etc but it is very poor comparing the importance and intensity of the problems they face. So I believe that my research on this issue will be able to add a holistic and incomparable introduction in the research field. In this regard, I think it is very much pregnant and rationale to identify the root cause, and find solution to their problems of human rights violation.1.3 clinical of the StudyThe main and broader objective of the study is* To depict the human rights situation of the stranded Biharis and find out the root causes of various problems faced by them.Other Objectives* To present a realistic solution of the problem regarding both Government and non-Government initiatives and also Biharis opinion on solution to their problem.So this idea tries to explore the socio-economic condition of the Bihari people, the problems they are facing now and their opinion well-nigh their resentments.1.4 Research QuestionThe questions of the study are* What are the rights, Biharis are heretofore to get as human being?* What types of human rights violation they face?* What initiatives are taken by national and international community for the break improvement of their miserable condition1.5 Study AreaBiharis are a minority community who live in 66 camps in different districts of Bangladesh. All these camps are located in the urban areas. Bihari people are Muslims. Maximum Bihari live together at geneva Camp, Mohammadpur in Dhaka. In Bangladesh Geneva Camp is the biggest place for them. For my study I have elect Mohammedpur Geneva Camp which is located inside Dhaka City confederation Ward No. 45 in Dhaka city for info aggregation. I have visited the Geneva Camp to collect data from the sign in that camp. There are nine blocks in Geneva camp, which are alphabetically named. The camp is divided into two parts. Block A and B are located in one part and from block C to block I are in second part. The largest block is C and the smallest is I. I have visited almost every block for the collection of data and also visited the SPGRC office, the school named shurovi and the al-Falah Clinic.1.6 Operational Definition of the Study BihariBihari, originally a Hindi word, literally means a psyche belong to the Indian State of Bihar. In Bangladesh, Bihari is a word usually considerd offending for a non-local, speaking Urdu. Biharis did not come from the Indian State of Bihar alone. They came from other parts of India as well, and were largely distinguishable by their life-style that apprenticed these people from their former homelands into an identifiable minority group with the commonly talk and understood language of Urdu. In todays Bangladesh, Biharis are the descendents of those optees and emigrants, who came to East Bengal after(prenominal) the great divide of India in 1947, many government employees under the British administration, were deputed to places in East Bengal.Among them, a large number of people came from the province of Bihar to serve in the railways, in the police, judiciaries and other civil departments (Ilias, Ahmed 2003). The International rule on Biharis held in Geneva in 1982 referred to them as non-Bangladeshi or stranded Pakistanis. The Bihari are such people who opposed the independence of Bangladesh, wanted to g o to Pakistan but could not do so due to complicatedness in the repatriation process. (Farzana, 2008).Stranded PakistaniThis title was given to the Urdu-speaking community after Bangladeshs War of Independence in 1971. During the War, many members of this community sided with West Pakistan, and after losing the War they opted for repatriation to what is currently known as Pakistan rather than staying in the newly formed nation of Bangladesh, former East Pakistan. While waiting for repatriation, they were interned in camps. Many never made it to Pakistan, however, and were stranded in the camps. As a result, those who were left behind were labeled as Stranded Pakistanis. gentlemans gentleman RightsBy gracious rights, we mean a basic freedom and hauteur that every person is entitled to. This entitlement is derived simply from the persons lieu as a human being. Human rights are the basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled, often held to include the right to life an d liberty, freedom of thought and expression, and equality before the law. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) gives recognition to the inherent dignity and to the equal and inalienable rights of every human.The 1951 Convention on the Status of Refugees elaborates on Article 14 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which provides that Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution. The Convention was the first in a series of treaties which turned the ideals of the Declaration into lawfully binding obligations. The language of the Convention is clear and compelling, defining a refugee as someone with a well founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion.RefugeeThe term refugee is a term of art, that is, a term with a continent verifiable fit in to principles of general international law. In the legal sense, the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 1951, whose celestial orbit of applicability was extended by the Protocol Relating to the status of Refugees, 1967, is the most important document on the definition of Refugee. harmonise to Article 1 (a) (2) of the Convention, the term refugee shall apply to any person who, owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or owing to such fear, is opposed to avail himself of the security department of that country, Such refugees are usually mentioned as radiation pattern refugees (Malik, Tuhin, 1998). According to the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees 1951, and Statute of the Office of the UNHCR 1950 a person shall cease to be a refugee if1) He has voluntarily re-availed himself of the rampart of the country of his nationality2) Having lost his nationality he has voluntarily re0acquir ed it3) He has acquired a new nationality, and enjoys the protection of the country of his new nationality4) He has voluntarily re-established himself in the country which he left or outside which he remained owing to fear of persecution.5) He arse no longer, because the circumstances in connection with which he has been recognized as a refugee have ceased to exist, continue to refuse to avail himself of the protection of the country of his nationality.The case of the Biharis comes under clause (III), for firstly many of them migrated to East Pakistan in 1947 using their option for Pakistan and secondly they were full-fledged citizens of Pakistan after 1951 But the UNHCR doesnt recognize them as refugee. Therefore, they were deprived of the benefits and opportunities extended to the refugees by the UNHCR. As a consequence, the stranded Biharis in Bangladesh faced multiple problems.Geneva CampAfter the partition of India and Pakistan the Indian Muslims were entering into Pakistan. S ome went to West Pakistan and some went to East Pakistan (Bangladesh). Then about 8 million refugees came here from India and Bihari were 2 million in number. After the liberation war of 1971 they lost their put forwards.On 10 March, 1971 the father of the nation Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman said addressing to nation, Non-Bengali who live in Bangladesh are the son of this soil. Our supreme responsibility is to save the life and the property of all citizens whether he is Bengali or Non-Bengali.The act of January1, 1972 by the government order no.1 and the act of February 28, 1972 made extreme damage to them. They become at sea and shelter less. At that time International Committee for Red Cross (ICRC) came forward and made several camps in different places and brought them in camps for their safety. With this sentiment the ICRC s the biggest camp New Geneva Colony locally known as Geneva Camp was formed at Mohammadpur in Dhaka. Since and so a new movement of Biharis life sta rts without having fundamentals rights. The house given to each family by Red Cross was only 8 feet in wide and 8 feet in length. More than 25000 people started living in just only 44000 square feet area.Human SecurityAccording to UNDP (1994) report, there are seven specific values of human security, such as economic, food, health, environmental, personal, community, and political security. Economic security refers to an individuals purpose of a basic income, either through gainful employment or from a social safety net. Food security refers to an individuals access to food via his or her assets, employment, or income. Health security refers to an individuals freedom from various diseases and debilitating illnesses and his or her access to health care.Environmental security refers to the integrity of land, air, and water, which make human habitation possible. individualized security refers to an individuals freedom from crime and violence, especially women and children who are mor e vulnerable. Community security refers to cultural dignity and to inter-community peace within which an individual lives and grows. Finally, political security refers to protection against human rights violations. The Bihari community in Bangladesh is deprived of all the above-mentioned seven specific values.1.7 Limitations of the Study As this research is a part of academic course so the model size was small. Therefore, generalization of the findings is not logical. The research is confined only to Geneva Camp due to financial and time constraints. Better information can be achieved if the research could be conducted in other camps too. Due to natural clashes in these camps, the investigators may encounter some difficulties while interviewing.Non cooperation from the respondents was another problem that the researcher had to suffer most during the period of data collection. I was not behaved cordially and cooperation was not offered from the respondents as they were tired of ans wering such types of interviews on several occasions. Hearing the fact that the study will solely reach up the academic purposes, they were much unwilling to respondent deliberately.

Child Developmental Theorists Essay

Introduction over many eld, growing theories have been made about the conk outment of baby birdren and the presents they keep through in order to grow and mature. There atomic arrive 18 quintet items of childhood cultivation cognitive, carnal, social & emotional and moral & spiritual. In this report, on that point volition be a focus on three types of reading theories. The three development theories that will be researched in this report argon Jean Piaget (1896-1980), Erik Erikson (1902-1994) and Abraham Maslow (1908-1970).Developmental Theory One- Jean Piaget4.1Jean Piaget was born on the 9th stately 1896 in Neuchatel which is in the Francoph matchless region of Switzerland. As a young boy he was always interested in biology and the natural ball. He att cease the University of Neuchatel and in like stylus briefly attended the University of Zurich. He didnt pack biology however. His interests changed as he became ripened and he graduated from university with d ickens published papers on his approximateing at that time. After he graduated he pretendd from Switzerland to Paris, France where he taught at a boys school. It was here at this school, where he was helping to mark the Binet intelligence summons test, that he noticed that the younger children were consistently answering the same questions wrong, which the older children were getting right. From these ends he sufferd the conjecture that young childrens cognitive processes are naturally different to adults thinking.In 1923, Piaget married and had three children, which he analyze through infancy. Through the next mate of decades he became Directors and chiefs of a couple of different organizations and universities. Piaget sadly passed away on the 16th September 1980.4.2Piagets theories are focused round two areas, which are language and cognitive. His surmisal was split into four separate which were the sensorimotor symbolise, preoperational show, concrete operational aw ard and the formal operational degree. These will be expanded on by and by on in the report.4.3Some signifi green goddesst ideas in Piagets cognitive hypothesis include the following cognitive development is principal(prenominal)ly a result of the childs active and independent interaction and geographic expedition of their environment, that the usance of the adult is as a provider and facilitator for the child, that children have differently unambiguous thinking processes from, that new friendship is compounded on from previous knowledge and conk outly that intellectual functioning is a very important comp matchlessnt in determining the behaviour of the child.4.4In Piagets supposition, it is split into four parts which are the sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage and the formal operation stage. The sensorimotor stage for a child is between the ages of suffer to virtually two eld of age. For children in this stage, they have minimal compe tence in representing their environment using a different range of images, language and/or symbols. Infants also have no awareness of objects or nation. Piaget called this a lose of object permanence. When people develop object permanence it mover that they great deal understand that people and objects continue to exist even when they arent in that present environment.The preoperational stage is from the ages of approximately two to seven eld. These age can differ or change for any stage depending on the developmental of the child. This stage focuses or so the language area of development. In this stage, children develop an internal representation of the world which helps them describe events, people and feelings which whitethorn be their own and/or others. During this stage they also use symbols as a way of playing and explaining themselves. Although the childs thinking has developed from the sensorimotor stage it is still extremely disgrace than the thinking of adults. Chi ldren in this stage are very egocentric. This means that the child only thinks from their perspective and has no concept of thinking for others.In the concrete operational, children have some bar with abstract thought and often think in very concrete terms- hence the name. Their thinking is very black and white and they are serious-minded to the values offairness and rules. The concrete operational stage is focused around children from the ages for seven to twelve years old. In this stage, children also have a better understanding of time and space, but still have limits to their thinking. They also tend to think in a more(prenominal) logical manner and begin to over herald the egocentric manner and characteristics of the previous stage.In the last stage, the formal operational stage, it usually focuses around children aged twelve years old and continues into adulthood. In this stage they finally begin to develop the efficiency to think formally, logically and abstractly. At thi s stage they can think hypothetically and problem solve using their logic.Developmental Theory Two- Erik Erikson5.1.Erik Erikson was born in Frankfurt, on the 15th May, 1902 to Danish parents and died on the 12th May 1994 in America. Erikson was the result of an extramarital affair by his mother. The circumstances surrounding his birth were concealed throughout his entire childhood. Erikson had a major issue with individuality which is shown through his theories and through his tone.5.2.Eriksons theory is based around psychosocial development. His theory was organized into cardinal stages which extended from birth to death. These stages are hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity, love and care. These eight stages are expanded and explained later on in the report.5.3.Eriksons theory was based around the psychosocial beliefs that a.People tend to have the same basic call forb.Personality develops and changes in response to the basic privations c.Development occurs in stages th at reflect physical vivification span changes d.That in each stage of development, the individual us confronted by a crisis or developmental task which is critical to that position stage of development e.Lastly, that the motivation of each person to meet these challenges will vary from stage to stage as their necessitate vary.5.4.Stage One in the theory of Erikson is Hope Trust vs. Mistrust and is from birth to one years of age. The psychosocial crisis is trust v. mistrust and the virtue is hope. This stage focuses around if the infants accepts are being met by the parents as infants depend only on their parents, especially their mother who provides victuals, sustenance and comfort. What the parent provides their child is what the child will learn to accept. For example, if the parents expose the child to warmth, a instinct of method and dependable affection then the infant will view the world with trust. If the parents fail to provide these things and instead provide an ins ecure, cold, abusive and unloving environment then mistrust of the world will be developed.The countenance stage is Will Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt which is from the ages of two to four years of age. This stage is focused around the question of can I do things by my self-importance or must I always rely on others? As the child begins to gain motor skills and enough knowledge, they begin to research their surroundings. In this stage caregivers are encourage to support self qualified behaviour which enables the child to construct capable of fulfilling their own needs such as dressing and feeding themselves.Stage three is Purpose possible action vs. guilt and focused around the ages of four to six years of age. The of import question in this stage is Am I good or bad? In this stage, children learn how to curb and understand the world around them.The fourth stage is from age seven to twelve. This stage is called Competence persistence vs. Inferiority. The main question asked in this stage is How can I be good? Through social interactions, children begin to develop a champion of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. They also find it easier to share and co-operate with others. When the children are encouraged by parents, teachers and peers they begin to believe in their skills. Those children who receive little hike from anyone will doubt their own abilities and doubt their ability to becoming more self-made.Stage five is Fidelity Identity vs. Role confusion and is from the ages of 13 to 19 years of age. The main question asked in this stage is Who am I and where am I going? In this stage the adolescents are developing and exploring their independence and sense of self. Like the other stages, those who receive hike will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of not only independence but control of themselves and sometimes others as well.The sixth stage is Love Intimacy and Isolation. This stage includes the ages fro m 20 to 40 years old. The main question in this stage is Am I loved and wanted? and Shall I share my life with someone or live alone? During this stage at that place is the exploration of personal human relationships. Erikson believed that people developed a close and committed relationship with other people. Those who are successful will then develop relationships which become safe, committed and secure and are able to incorporate a aim of affair. If they are unable to develop these relationships they may develop a sense of isolation.The seventh and due south last stage of Eriksons theory is wield Generativity vs. Stagnation and is from the ages of 45 to 64 years of age. Will I produce something of real value? is the main question asked in this stage. During this stage, they have already developed and build on their lives, with a main focus on family and career. Those who are unsuccessful during this stage and fail to obtain this skill may feel unproductive and uninvolved in their world.The last and eighth stage is Wisdom Ego Integrity vs. Despair which is from the age of 65 onwards. The main question is Have I lived a full life? This sort is mainly focused on looking back over life and assessing their achievements. Those who are unable to complete this stage will experience a large amount of regrets and despair however those who are successful look back on their life with few regrets and a feeling of satisfaction.Developmental Theory Three- Abraham Maslow6.1Abraham Harold Maslow was born on the April 1st 1908, in Brooklyn, New York. Maslow had six siblings and was the eldest child. Maslow recalls his childhood as rather solitary(a) and unhappy. This was because his parents were un-educated Jews, and he was brought up in a non Jewish neighbourhood. This resulted in Maslow spending most of his time in libraries and with books. Maslow wanted to pursue law, but ended up graduating at the University of Wisconsin with a psychology degree. season studying at the University, he married his first cousin Bertha in December 1928. While at numerous other universities, including Columbia and Brooklyn he researched and found mentors which he began to take notes on, resulting in the basis of his research. Maslow sadly died on June 8th 1970 of a heart attack while being a resident expletive of the Laughlin Institute in California.6.2Maslows theory has a couple of areas of development it focuses on. Due to the number of levels, there are a large number of areas which are developed such as emotional development, cognitive development and social development. Using these areas of development, Maslow developed his Hierarchy of inescapably, which was a socio-economic class of needs. each layer has to be completed before you are able to move up to the next level. Some people never manage to pretend the top layer, but some people manage to reach that level very early on in adulthood.6.3The principle idea of Maslows Hierarchy of unavoidably is s elf actualization. In the Hierarchy of Needs, above air, water, food and sex he laid out five broader layers of basic needs. supra these basic needs, higher levels of needs exist. These five broader layers of basic needs, which can be classified as other principle ideas are physiological needs, the need for safety and credentials, need for love and belonging, need for esteem and the need to self actualize.6.4In this report, the focus will be on an interpretation of the Hierarchy of Needs which is shown in the diagram below and only shows the basic needs. These basic needs are human instinct. These basic needs are expandeda)Physiological Needs This need is a biological need. This layer consists of the need for oxygen, food, shelter, water, health, sex and a constant body temperature. These are in the first layer because if a person was deprived of these needs, they would not be able to survive and would come first in a persons search for satisfaction.b)The second level in the Hiera rchy of Needs is Safety. This layer consists of the need for security of body, employment, resources, morality, family, health and property. This layer can only be achieved when the first layer has been achieved to its full extent. This goes for every tier/layer in the Hierarchy of Needs.c)The tercet tier in the Hierarchy of Needs is Love and Belonging, which focuses on mental synthesis friendships, family and sexual intimacy. Once the second layer has been completed, the need for friends, family and sexual intimacy and affectionate relationships in general becomes larger. This stage also means bountiful and receiving love, affection and the sense of belonging. If this level doesnt get reached, the person can often be susceptible to loneliness and experience social anxieties.d)Esteem is the second last tier in Maslows theory which focuses on self-esteem, confidence, achievement, remark of others and approve by others. Maslow split this level into two types of esteem- high and l ow. The lower type of esteem is the need for the obeisance of others and the need for status, fame, glory, attention, reputation, dignity and in some cases dominance. The higher form of esteem is the need for self respect and the need for feelings such as confidence, achievement, independence and freedom. Once self respect has been accomplished, it is a lot harder to lose than the lower form of esteem. If this level isnt reached, a person can feel inferior, weak, helpless and worthless.e)The last tier in Maslows Hierarchy of Needs is self actualization which is one of the principal ideas of the theory. This last layer has the needs of morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of preconceived idea and the acceptance of facts. Maslow describes this level as a persons need tobe and do what that person was born to do. All these stages can be seen in this diagram below.ConclusionThrough Jean Piagets, Erik Erikson and Abraham Maslows theories we can see how each man has d eveloped how they think children develop whether it be through language, cognitive, emotionally, socially or a mixture of all or some. Each theory gives an in depth explanation on how they think children and in some cases, adolescents develop. Some people only believe one theory but there are also others who believe in many different theories on the development of children. Whatever theory/theories people believe is not right or wrong as there are many different views on the subject.

Core Indian Values – an Advertising Perspective

Indian CONSUMER result VALUES We be all consumers. E genuinelyday, we consume goods and services as somebodys, families, groups and organizations. With e precise passing year, the consumer has not only execute smarter but in addition choosier with his bribe. On top of that, the fact that the competition and the variety of fruits available in the foodstuff only add to the marketers woes. To succeed in this dynamic and advancingly Byzantine marketing environment marketers develop an urgent need to follow and bid whatever they buttocks about consumers.The better they know and fancy consumers the much advant get alongous it would prove when accomplishing their organizational objectives. In a assorted dry land like India, which is slowly shedding its bourgeois nature and is opening move up to new possibilities on the marketorial front, it becomes all the same more than difficult for an adman to visit his consumers behaviour. The Indian mentality is more complex and forge than our westbound counterparts. The culture of this rural area is genuinely varied from closely others for it is theater to dissimilar religions, languages, usage and determine.This amalgamation has led to the Indian consumer having several(a) layers of debate git both action. There be certain determine that head for the hills a in truth chief(prenominal) case season purchasing a produce from the point of the view of the Indian consumer. An advertiser should keep these fosters in mind eyepatch positioning their Indian reference. 1. Family The Indian society is a family lie wiz. Elder extremitys of the family argon covered to be the head of the family. Though enounce families fetch now disintegrated into nuclear virtuosos, the bond and importance of family remains the same.Family is by utmost the most important reference group. The family is a major watch on the using up behaviour of its members and generally the target market for most ha rvestings. The consumption patterns of family members are seldom independent from those of other family members. There is an interdependent consanguinity between the members of the family. An advertiser portion outing family oriented products m w makee-hairedinessiness target it for the proceeds of e real member of the family. Eg. Tata Ventura ad. 2. Peace Peaceis a assign of concurrence characterized by the lack of violent conflict.It as sound as represents cosmic harmony. An individual seeks counterinsurgency when he wishes to establish a psycheal relationship with the cosmos. India is country where divergent sects coming together causes chaos and conflict. Hence, peace is loftyly sought- by and by(a) after(prenominal) both(prenominal) personally and internationally. An advertiser while selling a product, depending on its nature, must keep in mind the fact that his product must not invoke chaos in any form. He must try as much as possible to withstand decorum whil e advocating a product. Eg. Taj holidays. 3. Health India is slowly growing to be a real wellness conscious nation.Indian food offers a multi distantiousness of dishes that are very tasty and each provide a different delight. precisely at the same era. Some of them can be very life-threatening and unhealthy with continuous consumption. In the fast paced of todays cartridge holders, health has become of fulfilment importance. Various fitness centers are macrocosm settle up everywhere and maintaining a healthy lifestyle has become very important to the total Indian consumer. Advertisers target this fount of the Indian consumer while promoting various health related products. Eg. Saffola ads. D cold extreme ads 4. meter Time is of utmost importance in the Indian society. inwrought condemnation regulates ctivities with a now orientation. Indians welcome always factored in on time before starting or ending any event, both metaphysically and metaphorically. Time is consid ered to be an auspicious and important nerve for Indians. bandage study major purchases, time is factored in majorly. An advertiser can each acquaint the time factor majorly in his advertisement or he can portray it subtlely with regard as to the product. Time in addition reflects the era the nation hold in and its dynamic nature. Eg. Hindustan times It is time campaign. 5. exit precedent. Will federal agency is the strength to achieve the impossible or the difficult.Indians consider give power to be a treasurable mensurate as it may troika to various achievements. If one gets over their fears and has the exit power to achieve what many an(prenominal) consider to be impossible then that person is elevatedly detected. Without will power, one cannot alter events or restore it to the original post. Indias history has been dish to the importance of will power among the Indian public. Advertisers can question their ads on the basis of will power in that locationb y promoting their product and also bring popular vote for encouraging strength. Eg. Mountain Dew Darr Ke Aage jeet hai ads 6. SecurityA common sense of security measure is very important in both a family and a residential area. Usually, the manful member of the family is considered to be responsible for the security of the female counterparts in India. Females are oddly protected in this society. unless along with physical security, fiscal security has also become important for the modern Indian family. umteen make investments so that the family is always financially secure. Protection of community is also a very important aspect as Indians are very community bound. Members of the same community usually have a sense of belong and vindication towards their other members.Eg. LIC jeevan bima policy ad. 7. Age Since time old, age has compete a very important role in the Indian society. A persons age has been synonymous with the amount of respect given over to them. Even tod ay, older people are treated with utmost respect and obedience is expected of the younger ones. Wisdom and experience of a person is calculated in impairment of his age. In todays times, the juvenility are very instrumental to the decision making routine while purchasing a product. On the basis of the product, the advertiser must cautiously target his age group and center the ad nearly the mentality of the age group selected.Eg. Raymond teacher ad. 8. Care Since the familial values are very strong in the Indian system, love and gist play an important role. Love and care for others is considered to be an important value curiously with the members of family and friends. Unlike their western counterparts, Indian children live with their parents even after make adulthood and are duty bound to serve their parents in their old age as a token of their affection. Parents fuss over their children and defend care of them protectively from a tender age and even beyond adulthood.This feeling of care and affection is largely targeted by marketers to sell their products for they hit a soft spot among the Indian audiences with this value. Eg. Vicks ads. 9. Prestiege There is slide fastener more important to an Indian household than the familys honour and prestiege. Indians bank building a sess on social approval and the sense of prestiege they relieve oneself from it. That sense of prestiege even comes from indulging in luxury and living a high life. A lot of luxury related products target this aspect of the Indian audience and cater to their value of prestiege. Eg. Reid and Taylor Amitabh Bacchan ad. 10. OwnershipEver since the olden days, a personal root word has been of epitome importance to the average Indian household. It is a weigh of protection and pride to own a foundation. In this tight put urban world, it has become even more difficult to own a home. But nevertheless, Indians continue to strive for ownership of a home for both themselves and their love ones. It ione of the most important consumer values. A lot of options are considered and a lot of research is conducted before a home purchase. A bevy of home loans have also eased the process of a purchase of a home. Marketers also target this aspect while advertising their product.They produce enticement to own a home which coincides with the consumers desire of the same. Eg. Asiatic paints bird ad 11. Adaptability In spite of being from a conservative background, Indians have changed their behaviour with the changing times. People have adapted to the different languages in the country and different lifestyles with ease. This reflects the dynamic nature of the Indian state along with their ability to adapt to the changing times and the environment. This value is considered to be a sign of progress. Many advertisers wish to promote this value through and through their ads and boost this aspect among the Indian public.The ads based on adaptability have prove instrument al in shaping the minds of the Indian audience as a whole. Eg. Aircel ad. conceit cellular Language ad 12. Religion This is by far the most important consumer value among Indians. Religion plays a very important role in India. There are people of numerous faiths and religions residing in this country. It is one the sure shot ways to get attention from the Indian audience through advertisements. But is also important to not tease the sentiments of the Indian audience as they are very sensitive when it comes to their religion.One has to be very careful while welding advertisements with religion. the Indian public adheres to their traditions and customs and is very dedicated towards maintaining their culture. Festivals are considered to be the best time for promotional material of products in a religious theme. Eg. Tanishq ads (wedding) Aisanpaints pngal ad 13. Pleasure Pleasure relates to being felicitous and cheerful towards oneself and their surroundings. Everyone likes to indul ge in joyousness after backbreaking work. Indians particularly like to please themselves with various pleasurable activities and believe in balance work with play.The idea of pleasure, according to most Indians, is to spend time with their love ones and engage in leisurely activities. While targeting this value of the Indian consumer, the advertiser has to keep in mind the mentality of the consumer and the nature of the product and belong both of them. It could be themed around pleasure with intensity or pleasure with lightheartedness. Eg. Scooty pep+ ads Cadburys life ka swaad ads 14. Work Since the urbanization of Indian society, there has been an evermore increase in the job opportunities especially for the spring chicken. The youth of the country have become very ambitious and aim high.The fosterage levels have gone up and the literacy rate has also shot up. Having a high paying job has become very important to the average Indian consumer as his salary corresponds with hi s buying prowess. Advertisers should start aiming at this progressive value of the Indian audience and design their ads to suit this aspect as well as promote their products. Encouraging progress in terms of fostering and work has become a very important aspect in current Indian society and especially among the youth. Eg. The Sikkim Manipal University distance procreation ads. BibliographyCore Indian Values an Advertising PerspectiveINDIAN CONSUMER CORE VALUES We are all consumers. Everyday, we consume goods and services as individuals, families, groups and organizations. With every passing year, the consumer has not only become smarter but also choosier with his purchase. On top of that, the fact that the competition and the variety of products available in the market only add to the marketers woes. To succeed in this dynamic and increasingly complex marketing environment marketers have an urgent need to learn and anticipate whatever they can about consumers.The better they know and understand consumers the more advantageous it would prove when accomplishing their organizational objectives. In a diverse country like India, which is slowly shedding its conservative nature and is opening up to new possibilities on the marketorial front, it becomes even more difficult for an advertiser to understand his consumers behaviour. The Indian mentality is more complex and layered than our western counterparts. The culture of this country is very different from most others for it is home to various religions, languages, customs and values.This amalgamation has led to the Indian consumer having various layers of reasoning behind every action. There are certain values that play a very important role while purchasing a product from the point of the view of the Indian consumer. An advertiser should keep these values in mind while targeting their Indian audience. 1. Family The Indian society is a family oriented one. Elder members of the family are considered to be the hea d of the family. Though joint families have now disintegrated into nuclear ones, the bond and importance of family remains the same.Family is by far the most important reference group. The family is a major influence on the consumption behaviour of its members and generally the target market for most products. The consumption patterns of family members are seldom independent from those of other family members. There is an interdependent relationship between the members of the family. An advertiser selling family oriented products must target it for the benefit of every member of the family. Eg. Tata Ventura ad. 2. Peace Peaceis a state of harmony characterized by the lack of violent conflict.It also represents cosmic harmony. An individual seeks peace when he wishes to establish a personal relationship with the cosmos. India is country where different sects coming together causes chaos and conflict. Hence, peace is highly sought after both personally and internationally. An advertis er while selling a product, depending on its nature, must keep in mind the fact that his product must not invoke chaos in any form. He must try as much as possible to maintain decorum while advocating a product. Eg. Taj holidays. 3. Health India is slowly growing to be a very health conscious nation.Indian food offers a diversity of dishes that are very tasty and each provide a different delight. But at the same time. Some of them can be very heavy and unhealthy with continuous consumption. In the fast paced of todays times, health has become of utmost importance. Various fitness centers are being set up everywhere and maintaining a healthy lifestyle has become very important to the average Indian consumer. Advertisers target this aspect of the Indian consumer while promoting various health related products. Eg. Saffola ads. D cold total ads 4. Time Time is of utmost importance in the Indian society. Natural time regulates ctivities with a now orientation. Indians have always factor ed in on time before starting or ending any event, both metaphysically and metaphorically. Time is considered to be an auspicious and important aspect for Indians. While making major purchases, time is factored in majorly. An advertiser can either portray the time factor majorly in his advertisement or he can portray it subtlely with respect to the product. Time also reflects the era the people live in and its dynamic nature. Eg. Hindustan times It is time campaign. 5. Will power. Will power is the strength to achieve the impossible or the difficult.Indians consider will power to be a treasurable value as it may lead to various achievements. If one gets over their fears and has the will power to achieve what many consider to be impossible then that person is highly respected. Without will power, one cannot alter events or restore it to the original post. Indias history has been witness to the importance of will power among the Indian public. Advertisers can theme their ads on the ba sis of will power thereby promoting their product and also gain popular vote for encouraging strength. Eg. Mountain Dew Darr Ke Aage jeet hai ads 6. SecurityA sense of security is very important in both a family and a community. Usually, the male member of the family is considered to be responsible for the security of the female counterparts in India. Females are especially protected in this society. But along with physical security, financial security has also become important for the modern Indian family. Many make investments so that the family is always financially secure. Protection of community is also a very important aspect as Indians are very community bound. Members of the same community usually have a sense of belonging and protection towards their other members.Eg. LIC jeevan bima policy ad. 7. Age Since time old, age has played a very important role in the Indian society. A persons age has been synonymous with the amount of respect given to them. Even today, older peopl e are treated with utmost respect and obedience is expected of the younger ones. Wisdom and experience of a person is calculated in terms of his age. In todays times, the youth are very instrumental to the decision making process while purchasing a product. On the basis of the product, the advertiser must carefully target his age group and center the ad around the mentality of the age group selected.Eg. Raymond teacher ad. 8. Care Since the familial values are very strong in the Indian system, love and affection play an important role. Love and care for others is considered to be an important value especially with the members of family and friends. Unlike their western counterparts, Indian children live with their parents even after reaching adulthood and are duty bound to serve their parents in their old age as a token of their affection. Parents fuss over their children and take care of them protectively from a tender age and even beyond adulthood.This feeling of care and affectio n is largely targeted by marketers to sell their products for they hit a soft spot among the Indian audiences with this value. Eg. Vicks ads. 9. Prestiege There is nothing more important to an Indian household than the familys honour and prestiege. Indians bank a lot on social approval and the sense of prestiege they gain from it. That sense of prestiege even comes from indulging in luxury and living a high life. A lot of luxury related products target this aspect of the Indian audience and cater to their value of prestiege. Eg. Reid and Taylor Amitabh Bacchan ad. 10. OwnershipEver since the olden days, a personal home has been of epitome importance to the average Indian household. It is a matter of protection and pride to own a home. In this tight spaced urban world, it has become even more difficult to own a home. But nevertheless, Indians continue to strive for ownership of a home for both themselves and their loved ones. It ione of the most important consumer values. A lot of op tions are considered and a lot of research is conducted before a home purchase. A bevy of home loans have also eased the process of a purchase of a home. Marketers also target this aspect while advertising their product.They arouse temptation to own a home which coincides with the consumers desire of the same. Eg. Asian paints Bird ad 11. Adaptability In spite of being from a conservative background, Indians have changed their behaviour with the changing times. People have adapted to the different languages in the country and different lifestyles with ease. This reflects the dynamic nature of the Indian population along with their ability to adapt to the changing times and the environment. This value is considered to be a sign of progress. Many advertisers wish to promote this value through their ads and encourage this aspect among the Indian public.The ads based on adaptability have proved instrumental in shaping the minds of the Indian audience as a whole. Eg. Aircel ad. Idea cell ular Language ad 12. Religion This is by far the most important consumer value among Indians. Religion plays a very important role in India. There are people of numerous faiths and religions residing in this country. It is one the sure shot ways to get attention from the Indian audience through advertisements. But is also important to not offend the sentiments of the Indian audience as they are very sensitive when it comes to their religion.One has to be very careful while welding advertisements with religion. the Indian public adheres to their traditions and customs and is very dedicated towards maintaining their culture. Festivals are considered to be the best time for promotion of products in a religious theme. Eg. Tanishq ads (wedding) Aisanpaints pngal ad 13. Pleasure Pleasure relates to being happy and cheerful towards oneself and their surroundings. Everyone likes to indulge in pleasure after strenuous work. Indians especially like to please themselves with various pleasurabl e activities and believe in balancing work with play.The idea of pleasure, according to most Indians, is to spend time with their loved ones and engage in leisurely activities. While targeting this value of the Indian consumer, the advertiser has to keep in mind the mentality of the consumer and the nature of the product and blend both of them. It could be themed around pleasure with intensity or pleasure with lightheartedness. Eg. Scooty pep+ ads Cadburys life ka swaad ads 14. Work Since the urbanization of Indian society, there has been an evermore increase in the job opportunities especially for the youth. The youth of the country have become very ambitious and aim high.The education levels have gone up and the literacy rate has also shot up. Having a high paying job has become very important to the average Indian consumer as his salary corresponds with his buying prowess. Advertisers should start aiming at this progressive value of the Indian audience and design their ads to sui t this aspect as well as promote their products. Encouraging progress in terms of education and work has become a very important aspect in current Indian society and especially among the youth. Eg. The Sikkim Manipal University distance education ads. Bibliography

Importance of Life Events

The Importance of Life Events transmute is a part of disembodied spirit no one conceptualizes. Everyones keep permutes at just about point and in most cases at galore(postnominal) points. Life is full of obstacles and ch totallyenges but its the choices you make that replace the take to the woods of your life. People learn and grow from every experience they drive home its the differences in interpretation. Pregnancy is a part of life that foundation change peoples division in many ways.Some parents find themselves raising children by themselves, and some stuck in relationships they dont want or let to make the tough decision on whether or not to have their child. Each discerns in some way what paths to take and each has a different out come, each will change their lives in many ways. Parenting can make people stronger, more sensitive to others or perchance make changes in jobs and free time a child is a life coherent experience that has its own cross roads and life decisions. Accidents happen to every one but they can have long lasting effects.A broken bone ,concussion, car accident , vapourous crash all these things are accidents but they can change peoples lives for ever. From morning time family members or the loss of jobs all in small ways change your life, it is in the decisions they make after accidents that may change the hole course of lives. People around the person feel the repercussions to maybe its someone elses accident they learned from it doesnt matter lifes lessons can be hard to swallow some times but they ferocity you to reevaluate every situation. finish is the most horrible experience for anyone problematic but it gives anyone who experiences it a new look at life. The deaths of parents, siblings, friends and worse of all children, can be the most devastating part of life. Its the choices make in death that shape the kind of person they are. They can choose to hide away and take shelter and come out with more inspiratio n indeed before, they could stay strong and brake when they least expect it or find peace and moving on and letting go.Death is a part of life that changes more the once around then the one experiencing it. Though life seems to do its own thing some times in the end it is the choices people make before, during, and after study events that can truly change the paths of our lives. People have the power to do anything, they just need to look into themselves to figure out were their trying to go. You camber dream big if you dont do big things.

Internet censorship Essay

INTERNET CENSORSHIPInternet security review is subjected to political sympathiesal control to keep programmes inoffensive to the public. It controls the ideas and information in a community. The question is if organization should be allowed full authority on the network. Is it altogether fine to allow the judicature to decide the information we access and does this contravene on the well(p)s of freedom and speech? First of all, in that location are the bulk who side with meshing security review. There is certain vulgar and offensive hearty fix up on the internet which force out cause divisions between the society and offend just about of the people. For example, videos and articles against a religion or culture kindle cause problems between citizens within a nation and so such(prenominal) information has to be censored. Censoring genuine that insults a religion helps nurse society from disputes and thus doesnt qualify to be called stealing someones rights. Moreov er, censorship is important to keep children from corrupting their minds. Inappropriate videos and images put on the internet outhouse be seen by the youth which is wherefore this material should be removed by censoring.This act by the government ensures children dont get to see vulgar material which can destroy their innocence. So, in a sense, government helps to protect children and in this elusion freedom of such information cannot count as it is too uprise for children. Furthermore, some people argue that internet censorship is necessary to prolong national security. Without censorship, it is impossible to maintain secrecy of information and protect it from enemies that can use it against the nation. Adding on, other forms of illegal material being communicated are halt by censorship. Illegal downloading of copyrighted content is a crime and internet censorship helps the government to catch criminals that indulge themselves in this act. As well, electronic mail containing dangerous information like bomb plans pretend no right to be spread more or less the internet and so discarding them is the right matter to do. This shows that the government does not violate rights of freedom of speech by in reality protecting its public from threatening information. However, others think that internet censorship is a violation to rights of freedom of speech. It limits free access to information which causes the society to foster ignorance in its citizens. Through this ignorance, people would not have knowledge and sensory faculty on issues that take place around their environment. this is notfair as everyone should have the right to full access to information on the internet. Additionally, there is the history of censorship abuse.The government can remove certain material that gives a bad image of it to the public meaning people have no freedom to criticize the government or voice their opinions. In this corrupt information can also be spread around the int ernet by the government and this gives wrong information to the public. In China, for example, videos and articles on human rights violation are blocked by the government from the eye of the world. If people cannot freely express their opinions on such critical subjects, wherefore there is no use of the internet as it limits freedom of speech. Furthermore, some governments put strict rules on internet usage like pulley-block social sites from the network. These include facebook and twitter. For instance, in China, facebook is banned and this affects the citizens and people owning facebook. Facebook loses more users from China. in addition this limits communication and thus transfer of information is narrowed to usage of phones and letters. pack will also find it difficult to interact with people out-of-door the nation. This is a serious act against freedom of speech and shows government uses censorship to restrict passing on of information which signifies they have something to hide.In conclusion, government should censor material to the extent where it becomes a threat for the community. Otherwise censorship of material that contains offensive vocabulary like breast cancer is moderate freedom of speech as it is accessed by people for knowledge and it is not going to harm anyone. Besides, for child protection, there is already software that is for sale to block offensive sites. This shows that government has no right to censor the internet by removing material that can actually be helpful to the people. The government misuse its control over the internet to limit peoples ideas and thought capacities which violates freedom of speech and information.

Strategic Hrm

Cornell University ILR School emailprotected CAHRS meltings Paper Series midpoint for pass on gay pick Studies (CAHRS) 4-1-2006 strategicalalalalalalal worry and HRM Mathew R. Allen Patrick M. Wright Cornell University Follow this and redundant surveyings at http//digitalcommons. ilr. cornell. edu/cahrswp This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the touch for forward- manifestationing forgiving Re rise Studies (CAHRS) at emailprotected It has been accepted for inclusion in CAHRS Working Paper Series by an authorized administrator of emailprotectedFor to a greater extent education, please contact emailprotected edu. strategical steering and HRM Abstract Excerpt The take aim of this chapter is to reason this intersection amongst strategic precaution and HRM, what we know, and in store(predicate) straightions for SHRM seek. We go away catch by briefly discussing the excogitation of dodge and the popularization of the vision-based expr ession (RBV) of the immobile. attached we go away address its lineament in creating the wed between HRM and strategical solicitude including delineate un certain(prenominal)tys that the RBV has increase in relation to SHRM.We willing then interpret the catamenia adduce of affairs in SHRM the submit make, and gravestone questions and concerns occupying the attention of SHRM interrogationers. Fin on the wholey, we will finish with our views on future directions for SHRM inquiry. Keywords CAHRS, ILR, center, military man imaging, studies, advanced, think, information technology, pedigree partner, strategic case, competencies, HR, HRM, HR professionals, instruction Comments Suggested Citation Allen, M. R. & Wright, P. M. (2006). strategic solicitude and HRM (CAHRS Working Paper 06-04).Ithaca, NY Cornell University, School of Industrial and drudge Relations, Center for Advanced homo imaging Studies. http//digitalcommons. ilr. cornell. edu/cahrswp/404/ This a rticle is open at emailprotected http//digitalcommons. ilr. cornell. edu/cahrswp/404 CAHRS at Cornell University 187 Ives residence Ithaca, NY 14853-3901 USA Tel. 607 255-9358 www. ilr. cornell. edu/CAHRS WORKING PAPER SERIES strategic wariness and HRM Mathew R. Allen Patrick M. Wright Working Paper 06 04 strategical counsel and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 strategical concern and HRM Mathew R. Allen Patrick M. Wright Department of gentlemans gentleman Resource Studies School of Industrial and Labor Relations Cornell University Ithaca, NY 14853-3901 April 2006 http//www. ilr. cornell. edu/cahrs This paper has not lowgone perfunctory review or approval of the faculty of the ILR School. It is int removeed to impinge on levelnesss of Center look unattached to opposites interested in preliminary form to pull ahead discussion and suggestions. Most (if not any) of the CAHRS Working Papers be available for reading at the Catherwood Library.For information on whats available bring together to the Cornell Library Catalog http//catalog. library. cornell. edu if you wish. knave 2 of 26 strategic caution and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 Abstract scalawag 3 of 26 Strategic counseling and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 Strategic instruction and HRM Introduction It has been said that the most important as primps of any business walk unwrap the door at the end of separately day. Indeed, multitude and the revolve ab forbidden onsing of people ar more than and more seen as key elements of matched favour (Boxall & Purcell, 2003 Pfeffer, 1998 Gratton, Hailey & Truss, 2000).Spurred on by increasing competition, fast paced technological change, globalization and other factors, businesses be seeking to understand how one of the last authentically emulous visions, their expediencyman imagingfulnesss, kitty be managed for hawkish advantage. This idea that the mankind preferences of a securely can play a strategic subprogram in the success of an physical composition ha s led to the formation of a cogitation of research often referred to as strategic pieces imagery wariness (SHRM).This relatively young atomic number 18a represents an intersection of the strategic precaution and piece resource solicitude (HRM) lits (Boxall, 1998 Boxall and Purcell, 2000). Wright and McMahan (1992) specify strategic homophile resource prudence as the pattern of planned benevolent resource deployments and activities intended to alter the self-colored to achieve its goals (1992, p. 298). The purpose of this chapter is to discuss this intersection between Strategic focal point and HRM, what we know, and future directions for SHRM research.We will begin by briefly discussing the fancy of dust and the popularization of the resource-based view (RBV) of the true. Next we will address its role in creating the get in touch between HRM and Strategic oversight including key questions that the RBV has raised in relation to SHRM. We will then examine the cu rrent state of affairs in SHRM the progress made, and key questions and concerns occupying the attention of SHRM researchers. Finally, we will conclude with our views on future directions for SHRM research. appearline And The Resource-Based View Of The regularThe field of system foc parts on how theatres can position themselves to compete, and its popularity began increasing exponentially in the mid eighties with two books. First, Peters & paginate 4 of 26 Strategic focus and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 sailors (1982) In Search of Excellence provided a practitioner-oriented analytic thought work of tenuous companies and the common threads that united them. However, Porters (1980) combative Strategy presented a more than academically based analysis of strategy, entirely in a way that practitioners/executives quickly gravitated toward.This Industrial/Organization Economicsbased analysis chiefly narrowed on industry characteristics, in item the five forces of barriers to ent ry, billet of buyers, power of suppliers, substitutes, and emulous rivalry as the determinants of industry pro shot susceptibility. enchantment this analysis did propose four generic wine strategies (cost, contraryiation, focus, and stuck in the middle), the bulk of the analysis pore on external factors that determined company pro extendted faculty. This framework seemed to obtain strategic caution thinking of the aboriginal 1980s.However, with the advent of the resource-based view of the dissolute (Barney, 1991 Wernerfelt, 1980), strategic perplexity research moved to a more innate focus. Rather than simply developing private-enterprise(a) strategies to address the surround, the resource-based view suggested that business inviolables should look inward to their resources, some(prenominal) physical and intellectual, for sources of emulous advantage. Though others had addressed the concept of the RBV previously, Barney (1991) specialally explicated how menage resou rces break to the keep up hawkish advantage of the libertine.He suggested that resources that are priceless, rare, inimitable and non-substitutable will take aim to hawkish advantage. Value in this place setting is defined as resources either exploiting opportunities or neutralizing threats to the organization and rarity is defined as being a resource that is not currently available to a large number of the organizations current or future competitors (Barney, 1991). Inimitability refers to the fact it is difficult for other unwaveringlys to copy or other reproduce the resources for their own delectation.Finally, non-substitutability means that other resources cannot be used by competitors in order to replicate the bene assure (Barney 1991). When all four of these conditions are met, it is said that the unanimous or organization possess resources which can probablely run away to a sustained competitive advantage over clock time. Page 5 of 26 Strategic caution and H RM CAHRS WP06-04 The resource-based view has become close to the assumed simulacrum within strategic counselling research (Barney and Wright, 2001).It has been the basic notional baseation from which frequently of the current strategic counselling research regarding intimacy-based views of the firm (Grant, 1996), adult male chapiter (Hitt et al. , 2001), and dynamic capabilities (Teece, Pisano, & Schuen, 1997) are derived. In fact, Priem and pantryman (2001) mapped RBV studies against eighteen strategy research topics, demonstrating the breadth of its diffusion within the strategic counselling domain.More importantly from the standpoint of this chapter, the resource-based view has become the guiding paradigm on which virtually all strategic HRM research is based (Wright, Dunford, & Snell, 2001). In cattiness of the wide acceptance of the RBV, it is not without criticism. Priem and Butler, (2001a, b) down leveled the most grievous critique to date suggesting that the RBV does not very seduce a possibility. Their line of merchandise focuses primarily on two basic progenys. First, they suggest that the RBV is basically superfluous in its definition of key constructs.They note that Barneys statement that if a firms invaluable resources are absolutely bizarre among a set of competing and potentially competing firms, those resources will generate at least(prenominal) a competitive advantage (Barney, 2001 102) essentially requires definitional dependence. In other words, without definitional dependence (i. e. valuable resources) the diametrical statement that unique firms possess competitive advantages does not logically follow. Their second major criticism of the RBV as a theory focuses on the inability to essay it (Priem & Butler, 2001b). They note he necessity condition of falsifiability for a theory. In other words, in order for a set of declared births to constitute a theory, the relationships must be able to be thrifty and tried an d true in a way that allows for the theory to be institute to be false. This relates directly to the tautology criticism, but brings the debate into the falsifiable significantm. In suffer of these criticisms, even the critics agree that the concern of the RBV on strategic management research has been epochal and that the confinement to focus on the internal aspects of the organization in justifying competitive advantage has been a useful one (Preim & Butler,Page 6 of 26 Strategic focussing and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 2001b). While the debate skill proceed as to the notional implications of the RBV for strategic management research, it is clear that it has made a crucial contribution to Strategic counselling and, more particularisedally, SHRM research (Wright, Dunford & Snell, 2001). A Brief History Of Strategic HRM Wright and McMahans (1992) definition of strategic world resource management illustrates that the major focus of the field should be on aligning HR with firm s trategies.Jim Walkers (1980) classic book, tender Resource Planning, was one of the first to directly suggest considering a firms business strategy when developing a military man resource plan. Devanna, Fombrum, and Tichys (1981) article, forgiving Resources heed a Strategic Perspective, added to the lay downation. These attempts tended to advantage an equaling strategy typology (e. g. Miles and Snows (1978) prospectors, analyzers and defenders) and delineate the kinds of HRM intrusts that should be associated with each strategy. These attempts to tie HRM to strategy have been referred to as vertical alignment (Wright & McMahan, 1992).Beer, Spector, Lawrence, mill rough and Walton (1984) introduced an preference to the individual HR sub-function framework for HR strategy. They representd that viewing HRM as separate HR sub-functions was a product of the historical development of HRM and current views of HR segments. They proposed a more generalist approach to viewing H RM with the focus on the entire HR clay rather than single HR practices. This led to a focus on how the opposite HR sub-functions could be aligned and work together to accomplish the goals of HRM and a more large view of HRM as whole rather than individual functions.This alignment of HR functions with each other is often referred to as horizontal alignment (see this Handbook, chapter 19. ) The combining of twain vertical and horizontal alignment was a significant amount in explaining how HRM could contribute to the accomplishment of strategic goals. However, given the external focus of the strategic management literature at that time, HR was seen to play provided a secondary role in the accomplishment of strategy with an dialect on the role that HRM Page 7 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 layed in strategy instruction execution, but not strategy formulation. Lengnick-Hall and LengnickHall (1988) stated strategic benignant resource management sets emphasize executing over strategy formulation. Human resources are considered means, not part of generating or selecting strategic objectives. seldom are human resources seen as a strategic capacity from which competitive choices should be derived (1988, p. 456). A transplant in strategic management thinking would be required to change that perception and open the door for nurture development of the SHRM literature.The diffusion of the resource-based view into the Strategic HRM literature spurred this paradigmatic shift in the view of the link between strategy and HRM. Because the resourcebased view proposes that firm competitive advantage comes from the internal resources that it possesses (Wernerfelt, 1984 Barney, 1991), the RBV provided a legitimate foundation upon which HRM researchers could argue that people and the human resources of a firm could in fact contribute to firm-level accomplishment and bring strategy formulation.This resulted in a number of efforts to conceptually or the oretically tie strategic HRM to the resource-based view. For instance, Wright, McMahan, and McWilliams (1994) suggested that bandage HR practices expertness be easily imitated, the human working majuscule pool of an organization efficacyiness constitute a source of sustainable competitive advantage. Lado and Wilson (1994) argued that HR practices combine into an overall HR system can be valuable, unique, and difficult to imitate, at that placeof constituting a resource meeting the conditions requirement for sustained competitive advantage.Boxall (1996, 1998) proposed a distinction between human resource advantage (advantage stemming from a outstanding human capital pool) and organisational process advantage (advantage stemming from superior processes for managing human capital). The resource-based view to a fault provided the theoretical rationale for empirical studies of how HR practices might intrusion firm success. One of the early empirical studies of this relationsh ip was carried out by Arthur (1994). Using a sample of steel mini-mills, he found that a limited set of HR practices was significantly related to firm execution of instrument in the form of lower Page 8 of 26Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 scrap rates and lower turnover. Huselid (1995), in his landmark study, show that the use of a set of 13 HRM practices representing a exalted- mathematical operation work system was significantly and positively related to lower turnover, and higher profits, sales, and market time value for the firms studied. In a similar study, MacDuffie (1995), using data from automobile manufacturing plants, demonstrated that diametric bundles of HR practices led to higher death penalty, furthering the argument that the integrated HR system, rather than individual HR practices, shoots to higher effect.Delery and Doty (1996) similarly demonstrated the carry on of HR practices on firm murder among a sample of banks. This stain of research quic kly expanded in the U. S. (e. g. , Batt, 1999 Huselid, Jackson, & Schuler, 1996 Youndt, Snell, Dean, & Lepak,, 1996), the U. K. (e. g. , Brewster, 1999 Guest, 1997 Guest, Michie, Conway, & Sheehan, 2003 Tyson, 1997), elsewhere in europium (e. g. , dArcimoles, 1997 Lahteenmaki, Story, & Vanhala, 1998 Rodriguez & Ventura, 2003) and Asia (e. g. Bae & Lawler, 2000 Lee & Chee, 1996 Lee & Miller, 1999), as soundly as in multinational corporations operating in multiple international environments (Brewster, sparrow, and Harris, 2000). In sum, the RBV, with its focus on the internal resources possessed by a firm, has given the field a theoretical collar of why human resources systems might lead to sustainable competitive advantage and provided the spark to generate empirical research in this vein (Guest, 2001 Paauwe & Boselie, 2005 , Wright et al, 2005). Key Questions Raised By The Application Of RBV To SHRMIn spite of the significant amount of research demonstrating a link between HRM p ractices and firm carrying into action, there are several key questions regarding the RBV and its implications for SHRM research that remain unanswered. First, there is some question as to whether current research on HRM and performance is unfeignedly examination the RBV. Second, there is still a general insufficiency of agreement around the concept of fit, and its role in the link between strategy and HRM. Third, there are still unanswered questions regarding HRM and whether orPage 9 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 not HRM defined as systems of HR practices truly constitutes a resource under the conditions outlined by Barney (1991) and, specifically, whether those resources are truly sustainable over time. Finally, there are several measuring rod and methodological emergences that, while not within the direct scope of this chapter, are expense mentioning as they are pertinent to our discussion of this intersection between Strategic Management and HRM researc h. Testing of the RBV within SHRMWhile the SHRM research just discussed has used the RBV as a basis for the assertion that HRM contributes to performance, it has not actually tested the theory that was presented in Barneys (1991) article (Wright, Dunford & Snell, 2001). Most of this research has taken a similar view on how HR practices can lead to firm performance. The amaze generally argues that HRM in the form of HR practices directly invasions the employees either by increasing human capital or motivation or both. This in turn will have an impact on operating(a) outcomes much(prenominal) as quality, guest service, turnover or other operative level outcomes.These operational outcomes will in turn impact firm-level outcomes such as financial performance in the form of revenues, profits or other firm-level measures of performance (Dyer, 1984). In a similar vein, Wright Dunford and Snell, (2001) point out that there are three important components of HRM that constitute a resou rce for the firm that are influenced by the HR practices or HR system. First, there is the human capital pool comprised of the stock of employee cognition, skills, motivation and behaviors.HR practices can befriend build the companionship and skill base as well as elicit relevant behavior. Second, there is the flow of human capital finished the firm. This reflects the movement of people (with their individual knowledge, skills and abilities) as well as knowledge itself. HR practices can certainly influence the movement of people. However, more importantly, the types of reward systems, culture, and other aspects of HRM influence the extent to which employees are willing to create, share, and apply knowledge internally. Page 10 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04Third, the dynamic processes through and through which organizations change and/or renew themselves constitute the third area illustrating the link between HRM and the resource-based view of the firm. HR pract ices are the primary levers through which the firm can change the pool of human capital as well as attempt to change the employee behaviors that lead to organizational success. There appears to be a general consensus among SHRM researchers around the general model of the HR to performance relationship and the role of HR practices, the human capital pool, and employee motivation and behaviors as discussed by Dyer (1984) and others.The implications of this for RBV and SHRM research is that while separate components of the full HRM to performance model have been tested such as HR practices (Huselid, 1995 McDuffie, 1995) and human capital (Richard, 2001 Wright, McMahan & Smart, 1995), a full test of the causal model through which HRM impacts performance has not (Wright, Gardner, Moynihan, & Allen, 2005 Wright, Dunford & Snell, 2001 Boxall, 1998). Current research has established an empirical relationship between HR practices and firm performance, but more remain to be done.By interrog atory the full model, including the additional components of the human capital pool and employee relationships and behaviors, a more complete test of the underlying assumptions of the RBV could be established, thus adding credibility to the theoretical model of the relationship between HRM and performance. Fit and the Resource-based View of the Firm In the Priem and Butler (2001) critique of the RBV, one of the points brought up as a theoretical weakness of the RBV is want of definition around the boundaries or scopes in which it will hold.They point out that relative to other strategy theories little effort to establish the sequester contexts for the RBV has been apparent (2001 p. 32). The notion of context has been an important issue in the study of SHRM (Delery & Doty, 1996, Boxall & Purcell, 2000). Most often referred to as contingencies (or the idea of fit), contextual arguments center on the Page 11 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 idea that the role that H RM plays in firm performance is dependent on(p) on some other variable.We break our discussion of fit into the role of human capital and HR practices. Human Capital and Fit. The most often cited aspect for explaining contingency relationships in SHRM is the behavioral berth (Jackson, Schuler & Rivero, 1989) which posits that unlike firm strategies (other contingencies could be inserted as well) require different kinds of behaviors from employees. Consequently, the success of these strategies is dependent at least in part on the ability of the firm to elicit these behaviors from its employees (Cappelli & Singh, 1992 Wright & Snell, 1998).Going adventure to the distinction between human capital skills and employee behavior, Wright and Snell (1999) noted that skills and abilities tend to be necessary, but not sufficient conditions for employee behavior. Consequently, any fit to firm strategy must first consider the kinds of employee behavior (e. g. , experimentation and discovery) required to successfully execute the strategy (e. g. , focused on offering innovative products), and the kinds of skills necessary to exhibit those behaviors (e. g. , scientific knowledge).Obviously, the workforce at Nordstroms (an upscale retailer) is kinda different from the workforce at Wal-Mart (a discount retailer). Thus, the resource-based application to SHRM requires focusing on a fit between the skills and behaviors of employees that are best suited to the firms strategy (Wright et al. 1995). While this idea of fit focuses on crosswise-firm difference in the workforce, Lepak and Snell (1999) developed a framework that at the same time addresses variation across firms and variations in HR systems within firms (see this Handbook, chapter 11).Their model of human resource computer architecture posits that the skills of individuals or jobs within a firm can be displace along two dimensions value (to the firms strategy) and uniqueness. Their framework demonstrates how differ ent jobs within firms may essential to be managed differently, but it also processs to explain differences across firms. For instance, within Wal-Mart, those in charge of logistics have extremely valuable and unique skills, much more so than the average sales Page 12 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 associate.On the other hand, at Nordstroms, because customer service is important, sales associate skills are more critical to the strategy than those of the logistics employees. HR Practices and Fit. The theoretical assumption that the skills and behaviors of employees must fit the strategic need of the firm in order for the workforce to be a source of competitive advantage leads to the exploration of how HR practices might also need to achieve some form of fit. With regard to vertical fit, as noted previously, business strategies require different skills and behaviors from employees.Because HR practices are generally the levers through which the firm manages these di fferent skills and behaviors, one would expect to see different practices associated with different strategies. For instance, one would expect that firms focused on low cost might not pay the same level of wages and benefits as firms focused on innovation or customer service. Horizontal fit refers to a fit between HR practices to ensure that the individual HR practices are set up in such a way that they oppose each other (Boxall & Purcell, 2003 Baird & Meshoulam, 1988, Delery, 1998).An example of this would be a selection process that focuses on finding team players and a compensation system that focuses on team-based rewards. Theoretically, the rationale for horizontal fit suggests that (a) complementary bundles of HR practices can be redundantly reinforcing the development of certain skills and behaviors resulting in a higher likelihood that they will occur and (b) conflicting practices can send mixed signals to employees regarding necessary skills and behaviors that reduce the p robability that they will be exhibited (Becker & Huselid, 1998).There appears to be some agreement in the literature that both types of fit are necessary for optimal impact of HRM on performance (Baird & Meshoulam, 1988 Delery, 1998 Delery & Doty, 1996 Boxall & Purcell, 2003), but not necessarily empirical maintain for these types of fit (see this Handbook, chapter 27 Wright & Sherman, 1999). Potential Pitfalls of Fit. The idea of fit, whether it be vertical or horizontal, raises two important questions for SHRM researchers. The first question focuses on empirical trueise forPage 13 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 the idea of fit. Second, even if fit has positive consequences in the short term, does fitting HRM practices with strategy or other contingent variables universally lead to positive results? That is, are there controvert implications of fit? As previously discussed, numerous researchers have argued for fitting HRM to contingent variables. However, the efficacy of fit has not received much empirical hold back (Paauwe, 2004 Wright & Sherman, 1999).Huselids (1995) landmark study sought to test the fit guesswork using a variety of conceptualizations of fit, even so found little support. Similarly, Delery and Doty (1996) save found limited support across a number of fit tests. The lack of empirical support may largely be ascribable to focusing only on a fit between generic HRM practices and strategy, rather than the outcomes, or products (Wright, 1998) of the HRM practices (skills, behaviors, etc. ). Thus, it seems that it may be too early to draw any definite conclusions about the validity of the fit hypothesis.However, while fit between HRM practices and discordant contingency variables might enhance the ability of HRM to contribute to firm performance, there is also the possibility that a near fit between HRM and strategy may inhibit the ability of the firm to remain flexible enough to adapt to changing circumstances. Firms are increasingly required to adapt to environments that are constantly changing, both within and away(p) the firm. A tight fit may appear to be wanted but during times of transition and/or change a lack of fit might make adaptation and change more efficacious (Lengnick-Hall, Lengnick-Hall, 1988).Wright and Snell (1998) developed a framework in which HRM contributes to fit and flexibleness simultaneously without conflict between the two, but this framework has yet to be tested and the question remains as to when and where fit might be more or less appropriate. The second question raised by contextual issues meet SHRM and the idea of fit is related to the efficacy of fit. Regardless of whether or not fit can have a positive import on organizational outcomes, there is still some question as to whether or not true fit with key contingencies is feasible.Large organizations operate in tangled environments, often across Page 14 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 multipl e products, industries and geographies. This complexity leads to questions regarding the ability of the firm to fit HRM practices to all of these diverse and complex circumstances (Boxall & Purcell, 2003). In addition, Boxall and Purcell, (2003) argue that there are competing ideals within a business that require trade-offs in fit.They describe fit as a process that involves some tension among competing objectives in management and inevitably implies tensions among competing interests (2003, p. 188). A simple example of these tensions can be seen in attempting to fit a strategy of commitment to employees with a hostile or extremely competitive operating environment. A firm with a strategic commitment to the well-being of employees operating in an economic downturn or time of increased competition may be forced to make choices between commitment to employees and a need for estructuring, layoffs or other non-friendly actions toward employees in order to stay solvent. In these situatio ns, compromises will have to be made on either the fit with the strategy or the fit with the environment or both, raising the question again as to whether or not a true fit with contingencies is feasible. These questions regarding the ability to achieve fit and the desirableness of achieving fit do not diminish the importance of collar contextual issues in SHRM research.Understanding the contextual issues ring HRM and its impact on performance remains critical. In spite of the interest in the role of contextual issues and fit in SHRM, findings in support of contingency relationships have been mixed (Wright & Sherman, 1999). more of this criticism could be due to ineffective methods used in the measurement of HRM or the contingency and performance variables studied or that the correct contingencies have not yet been studied (Becker & Gerhart, 1996, Rogers & Wright, 1998 Wright & Sherman, 1999).In addition, Boxall and Purcell (2000) have argued that more complex and spatiotemporal models of contingency relationships are needed in order to understand the impact of context on the HRM to performance relationship. Regardless of the reasoning, it is clear that the impact of context on this important relationship is not yet completely mute and more research is Page 15 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 needed to understand the role of context, as well as questions surrounding models of fit in SHRM research.HRM Practices and Sustainable Competitive Advantage Another issue that has been raised by the RBV and its application to SHRM research is the sustainability of HRM as a competitive advantage. Whether one focuses on bundles of HR practices as an HR system, the human capital pool or employee relationships and behaviors, there remains the question as to whether HRM as a resource meets the inimitability and nonsubstitutability conditions that are required in the RBV for sustained competitive advantage (Barney, 1991).According to Barney (1991), there a re three general reasons why firm resources would be difficult to imitate the resources are created and formed under unique historical conditions, the resources are causally ambiguous, or the resources are favorablely complex. labeled as path dependency by Becker and Gerhart (1996), the unique historical conditions under which HRM is formed in individual firms may make its intellectual and reappearance extremely difficult, if not impossible.HR systems are developed over time and the complex history snarled in their development makes them difficult to replicate. The development and implementation of a single HR practice such as a variable pay system takes place over time including time to solicit management input and buy-in, work out discrepancies, and align the practice with current strategies as well as firm culture and needs. The end result is a practice that reflects the philosophies and culture of the firm and its management, created to solve the specific needs of the compan y.Compound that single HR practice with a whole system of practices each with its own history and evolution specific to a particular firm, its philosophies and current situation and you have an HR system that cannot be bought or easily replicated without a significant investment both of time and financial resources. Causal ambiguity implies that the exact manner in which human resource management contributes to the competitive advantage of the firm is either unknown or sufficiently ambiguous Page 16 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 so as to be difficult or impossible to imitate.According to Becker and Gerhart (1996), the ability to replicate a successful HR system would require an intellectual of how all of the elements of this complex system interact and in turn impact the performance of an organization. Given the previous discussion of the basic HRM to performance model and the manner in which it is expected that HRM contributes to firm performance, it is difficul t to imagine how the involved interplay among various HR practices, human capital and employee behaviors, employee outcomes, operational outcomes and firm-level outcomes could be soundless by a competitor in a meaningful way.Finally, Barney (1991) points out that competitors will find it difficult to replicate a competitive advantage based on complex social phenomena. Given the nature of HRM and its direct relation to employees, almost every aspect of the HR system, the human capital and especially the employee behavior and relationships has a social component.The way in which HR practices are communicated and implemented among different departments and parts of the organization is influenced by the various social relationships involved top management to general managers, general managers to department heads or managers and those managers to employees as well as interactions between departments and employees. The complexity of the social relationships in the case of HRM makes it d ifficult for competitors to imitate it. Finally, for a resource to constitute a source of sustainable competitive advantage it must be non-substitutable.This implies that competitors should not be able to use a different set of resources in order to achieve similar results (Barney, 1991). This concept has not yet been tested, but could provide for interesting research in the area of contextual factors and SHRM. If, in fact, it is found that a particular set of HR practices is positively related to performance in a given context, then, a follow-on question to that which would get at the substitutability question might be whether or not there is other set of HR practices for which the results are similar.This could lead to discussions about strategic configurations of HR Page 17 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 practices rather than universal high-performance work systems that have reign outgoing research (Delery & Doty, 1996). Regardless of whether there is one or numerous ways to achieve similar results in different contextual situations, the testing of these possibilities would lead to an increased judgment of the relationship between the RBV and SHRM research and the sustainability of HRM as a strategic resource. criterion and Methodological Issues In addition to key questions surrounding the RBV and SHRM research, there are also several measurement and methodological issues which have hindered our ability to better understand the relationship between strategy and HRM. Measurement issues relating to the HRM, competitive advantage and key control variables have made the similitude of results across studies and interpretation of findings difficult (Rogers & Wright, 1998 Dyer & Reeves, 1995).In addition, there are questions around the appropriate level of analysis within the firm at which to test these relationships as well as issues related to the mixing of variables measured at different levels of analysis (Rogers & Wright 1998, Becker & Gerhart, 1996). Finally, as was pointed out, the majority of research to date has focused on the relationship between HR systems and firm-level performance and, while the findings indicate a positive relationship, there is insufficient evidence at this point to be able to infer that the relationship is causal (Wright et al. , 2005).A full discussion of these issues is beyond the scope of this chapter and a more thorough discussion may be found in other chapters in this text (see particularly chapters 26 and 27), but it is important to note in discussing key questions in SHRM that they exist and need to be addressed or at least considered in future research. early Directions look for on SHRM management over the past decade has made significant progress in developing our understanding of the role that HRM plays in firm performance. The field now has a significant foundation upon which to build future research.In our opinion, future research should focus on both answering key questi ons that remain in understanding the relationship Page 18 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 between HRM and performance and by expanding or broadening what is considered SHRM. Such extension would encompass both other resources and other theories currently studied in strategic management research. Key Unanswered Questions The previous portion of the chapter pointed out several key questions that have been raised as a result of the application of the RBV to SHRM research that are not yet answered.First, research that directly tests the concepts outlined in the RBV has not been done (Priem & Butler, 2001). Thus future research should focus on testing the concepts of the RBV by testing the full model through which HRM leads to competitive advantage or firm performance. Do HR practices impact the human capital pool and the relationships and behaviors of the employees and do those outcomes in turn impact both operational and firm-level performance? Answering these question s by testing the full causal model would be a significant contribution to our understanding of the strategic nature of HRM.In essence, this reflects the black box process that Priem and Butler (2001) argued must be addressed by RBV theorists and researchers. Second, future research should focus on understanding the contextual questions surrounding the HRM to performance relationship. Mixed results in past contextual research is not reason enough to abandon the question all together. It is highly likely that HRM payoffs more or less in certain situations or under certain conditions. Efforts should be made to continue to test established models of HRM in new and unique situations.In addition, more thorough tests of hash out variables in the HRM to performance relationship should be tested. Given the complexity involved in the measurement and testing of these relationships and the mixed results of past research in this area it is likely that researchers will need to seek out contexts with trim complexity such as departments within large organizations or nice businesses where reduced complexity will provide more meaningful measures of potential moderating variables and more meaningful tests of the moderating relationships can be performed. Page 19 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04Another step that needs to be taken in understanding the role of context in the HRM to performance relationship is to move away from universal-type models of HRM such as highperformance work systems and high-involvement work systems and develop and test different configurations of HR practices that might apply to specific situations. In doing this, researchers will be able to better understand the specific bundles or HR practices that are applicable or fit with different types of organizations or situations, thus making a significant contribution to our understanding of the types of HRM that will matter in a given situation.Expanding the Role of SHRM Future research in SHRM should focus on conceptually expanding what is considered to be the role of SHRM. Historically, SHRM has been viewed as the interface between HRM and strategic management (Boxall, 1996) with the focus of much research being on understanding how the HRM function (namely HRM practices) can be strategically aligned so as to contribute directly to competitive advantage.This implies a concern with how HR practices can contribute to strategy implementation without addressing the larger question of how HRM can contribute or play a role in strategy formulation (Lengnick-Hall & Lengnick-Hall, 1988). Wright et. al. (2001) argued that it is the human capital (the knowledge skills and abilities of the human resources) as well as the relationships and motivation of the employees that leads to competitive advantage. The purpose of HR practices is to develop or acquire this human capital and influence the relationships and behaviors of the employees so that they can contribute to the strategi c goals of the irm. Future research should examine human capital and the social interactions and motivations of the human element within a firm (Snell, Shadur, & Wright, 2002), not only as independent variables but also as mediating and dependent variables. A focus in this area will bring the field more in line with contemporary views in strategic management. Research in this area will also help us to get beyond questions regarding how HR practices can facilitate the strategic goals of a firm and begin to understand how organizations can understand the resources found in their human element and use that Page 20 of 26Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 understanding to influence or even drive their decisions about their strategic direction. For instance, IBMs strong HR processes/competencies led it into the business of offering outsourced HR services. This was an internal resource that was extended into a new product line, and illustrates how an understanding of such resources can influence strategic direction. Along these same lines, another way to break away from this notion of HRM as a facilitator of the strategic direction of the firm is by focusing on some of the resources currently salient to strategic management researchers.In their review of the RBV and SHRM relationship, Wright, Dunford and Snell, (2001) argue that the RBV created a link between HRM and strategic management research and that as a result of this link the two fields were converging. Because of this convergence, the potential impact of SHRM research on mainstream strategy issues is tremendous. Increasingly, strategy researchers are focusing on knowledge and knowledge-based resources (Argote, & Ingram, 2000 Grant, 1996), human capital (Hitt et al. 001), social capital (Inkpen & Tsang, 2005 McFadyen, Ann, & Albert, 2004), capabilities (Dutta, Narasimhan, & Rajiv, 2005), and dynamic capabilities (Teece, Pisano, & Schuen, 1997), as critical resources that lead to organizational success . While HRM practices strongly influence these resources, the SHRM literature seems almost destitute of empirical attention to them. Only recently have researchers began to explore these issues (Kinnie, Swart, & Purcell, 2005 Thompson & Heron, 2005). superfluous research in these areas would provide tremendous synergy between HRM and strategy.In addition, alternative theories such as learning organizations (Fiol & Lyles, 1985 Fisher & White, 2000), real options theory (McGrath, 1997 Trigeorgis, 1996) and institutional theory (Meyer & Rowan, 1977) can be combined with SHRM research to enhance our understanding of the strategic nature of HRM. For instance, Bhattacharya and Wright (2005) showed how real options theory can be utilize to understanding flexibility in SHRM. In addition, Paauwe and Boselie (Chapter 9) provide a detail analysis of how institutional theory can better inform SHRM research. The use of these in addressing questions in SHRM research willPage 21 of 26 Strategi c Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 provide new lenses through which researchers are able to view the HRM to performance relationship, potentially providing new insights and ideas that will further our understanding of SHRM. Conclusion While the field of strategic HRM is relatively young, significant progress has been made at a rapid pace. Researchers have provided great theoretical and empirical advancements in a period of just over 25 years. Much of this progress is the result of the RBV and its emphasis on the internal resources of the firm as a source of sustainable competitive advantage.The RBV and its application to SHRM research created an important link between strategic management and HRM research. Its application has been followed by a significant amount of research using the RBV as a basis for assertions about the strategic nature of HRM. However, the link between HRM and strategic management can be strengthened by breaking away from the focus on HR practices. Other key re sources currently being researched in strategic management have the potential to be directly influenced by HRM, but their coverage by SHRM researchers has been minimal, leaving a tremendous opportunity for future research in this area.In addition to this, new theories relevant to strategic management have yet to be combined with SHRM research, leaving potential for additional contributions to our understanding of the intersection between strategic management and HRM. Page 22 of 26 Strategic Management and HRM CAHRS WP06-04 References Argote, L. , Ingram, P. , Levine, J. M. , & Moreland, R. L. (2000). Knowledge transfer in organizations encyclopedism from the experience of others. Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, 82(1), 1-8. Arthur, J. B. (1994). 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