Motivation Of Volunteer Tourists And Leisure Traveling Decisions Tourism Essay

Motivation Of extend Tourists And Leisure Traveling Decisions Tourism EssayTravel attend is, restrictedly, perceived as seeking relaxation including sun, b severallyes, shopping and freedom. However, biding could actually be happened during a vacation or be tote up the main reason of the trip which highly involved in the topical anaesthetic culture (Maureen, 2006). fit in to the Tourism 2020 Vision report made by the United Nation World Tourism Organization, which normally decrease as UNWTO, international touristry will possibly encounter a 4.1% increment of annual growth rate on average from 1995 to 2020 meaning to around 1.56 billion visitors. However, pass away get aheads not only world peace and friendship, but economic inequalities, heathenish and environmental deteriorations (Poelzl, 2002).Figure 1 Conceptual map of alternative touristry (Mieczkowski, 1995, p459)Mass touristry mainly consists of purchasing standardized products and visiting those prevailed and who lesome- comeed touristry destinations (Robinson Novelli, 2005). Having more leisure time and higher purchasing power triggered the desire to necessitate different experiences (Hall Weiler, 1992). Nowadays deal ar construeing for unique, novel and meaningful spark off experience to satisfy themselves (Robinson Novelli, 2005).Due to globalization, nations produce closer neighbours, and unveiling each separates problems. Closeness helps the slight fortunate and raises the environmental awareness (Uriely, Reichel Ron, 2003). It gives raise of alternative tourism, which including a diversity of tourism forms into niche markets such(prenominal) as nature and peculiar(a) interest tourism which is abbreviated as SIT. SIT offers customized leisure and travel experience according to increasing needs from the individuals (Derrett, 2001). For instance, several projects connect to unpaid worker tourism and ecotourism rescue been actively promoted mainly in create countries wh ile conservation projects have been executed in developed countries (Britton, 1977 Saglio, 1979 Wearing, 2001).SIT travellers involve in cultural and leisure activities developing their special interests, gained insights and satisfied themselves by dischargeling the higher level of needs namely self-esteem, belonging and self-actualization (Neulinger, 1982 Henderson, 1984 Hall Weiler, 1992 Wearing, 2001, 2004). Volunteer tourism is a voltage profitable market as the majority of this division are higher educated and more sensitive to the environmental and social costs they brought (Hall Weiler, 1992 Lynne, 1993).Volunteer tourism and ecotourism both offer an alternative tourism experience and their underlying focus is sustainability in order to ensure the impacts on destination are minimized (Sofield, 1991, Wearing, 2001). two forms are aiming to balance development to meet present needs without compromising the ability to meet the needs of future generation (Mieczkowski, 1995 Wearing, 2001). This stool be prime by the fact that pop the question tourism pays special attention to the environmental and social learning capacity, coinciding with the aims of sustainability (Colton, 1987 Wearing, 2001).1.2 The Global Development of Volunteer TourismSince 1915, the phenomenon of overseas travel of international pop the questions, existed and is supported by a range of organizations and groups around the globe (Gillette, 1968 Clark, 1978 Beigbeder, 1991 Wearing, 2004). However, it was not being regarded as a tourism form.Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, which is abbreviated as OECD, estimated over 33,000 overseas bids engaged during 1990 (Beigbeder, 1991 Wearing, 2001, 2004). Furthermore, the renowned guidebook, Mcmlillon, noted there were 75 organizations in 1987 (Campbell, 1999), with contrast to 275 in 2003. In addition, there are different sources also suggesting the significant growth in volunteer-based organizations (Holder, 2002 Brown Morrison, 2003 Brown, 2005). Based on a survey of over 300 volunteer tourism organizations worldwide, it is estimated overall market has grown to 1.6 million volunteer tourists a year, with a total market value of among GBP 832 million and GBP 1.3 billion (Association for Tourism Leisure Education, 2008). The or so unanimous growth in the sector has taken place since 1990 (Association for Tourism Leisure Education, 2008). These figures show a rapid growth in volunteer tourism.The popularity of alternative tourism has increased significantly such as volunteer tourism and ecotourism (Wearing, 2001, 2002 Mustonen, 2005). This is further witnessed by leisure travellers desiring to connect with local anaesthetics and their culture in order to stimulate and fulfil their need of cultural immersion by combining travel, adventure and helping (Brown Morrison, 2003 Hall Raymond, 2008). Several reports indicated 77% of organizations are non-government such as Youth argufy International and Earth-watch, while 13% are commercial such as i-to-i, 5% are government ran such as Volunteer Service on base New Zealand, and 3% are operated by universities like University of Californias University Research Expeditions Programme (Ellis, 2003 Board, 2003 Coghlam, 2008).1.3 The development of SIT and volunteer tourism in Hong KongSIT is still developing in its infancy stage in Hong Kong. Despite the fact that little Hong Kong residents thoroughly know nigh SIT, a quash of volunteer travel service suppliers do exist in Hong Kong. For-profit tour operators such as Hong Kong Study Tours Centre (Hong Kong Study Tours Centre, 2007) organize conservation volunteer tours to Australis and New Zealand for students. Other volunteer travel opportunities are usually provided by non-profit organizations. For instance, International Youth Culture Exchange Association (H.K.) Ltd. occasionally provides volunteer tours for secondary students and undergraduates. These volunteers will usually be involved in teaching English and simple hygiene knowledge in China (International Youth Cultural Exchange Association (H.K.) Ltd., 2007). Global neighbor Network is dedicated to promoting volunteer tourism in Hong Kong by organizing volunteer tours regularly to different needy communities such as Sri Lanka, Kenya and Jordan (Global Neighbour Network, 2006). It has also worked with local universities such as medical students from The University of Hong Kong to provide basic medical care and treatment for patients in Indonesia. Besides, volunteers in Global Neighbour Network will accessory with international volunteers in Global Hope Network to participate in different volunteer tours. Other non-profit organizations involved in volunteer tourism acknowledge Yellow House, Volunteer Space and LoveFaithHope Charitable Foundation.Due to insufficient awareness of the general public, volunteer tourism is still not very well-known in Hong Kong and the number of participant s is limited, yet it has been gaining popularity in these few years. Both secondary school and undergraduate students are given more opportunities to give back to the needy club in China, although they may only do voluntary work for one or two days of the entire tour and engage in cultural exchange activities for the rest of the tour. In addition to students, religious groups make up most of the volunteer travellers in Hong Kong. They will visit various impoverished places on mission travel, with some of the time spent on volunteering. In general, they will provide education and development aid in the needy communities.1.4 Problem rumorVolunteer tourism is a relatively recent phenomenon around the world. Though there has been increasing explore on the wantal factors of volunteer tourists, little of such search has been done in the Asia-Pacific context, let alone within the Hong Kong context. It is of paramount importance to understand the travel motif of volunteer tourists be cause it is the driving force backside their behaviors (Schiffan, Bednall, OCass, Paladino Kanuk, 2005). In addition, studying their perceived value of the volunteer trips will help to determine their intentions to recommend and repurchase the volunteer travel opportunities (Petrick, 2004a 2004b). This research is designed to seek why Hong Kong residents participate in volunteer tours, what triggers them and what their perceived values towards their volunteer trips are. With a better understanding of the aforementioned issues, tourism marketers and professionals and effectiveness service providers such as travel agencies will be able to identify if there is any market potential to organize more volunteer tours and diversify the tourism products in Hong Kong. The results of this study will help non-profit organizations to better understand why raft choose to volunteer overseas, then they will be able to segment and target the markets, create tailor-made volunteer tours to recrui t more warm-hearted people to become volunteers, as well as develop take over marketing strategies to promote volunteer tourism in Hong Kong.1.5 Objectives To examine the motivational factors behind Hong Kong residents towards volunteer travel. To examine the perceived constraints of repeat participation among volunteer tourism among participants. To examine the make of a volunteer tourism experience on future leisure travel decisions.Chapter 2 Literature ReviewThis chapter offers a study of the literature with persona to the theme and research purposes of this study. There are four sections in this chapter. The first section will define volunteering and volunteer tourism. Second, tourism motivation, development of motivational theories and volunteer motivation is reviewed, followed by a summary of previous associate research on volunteer tourism. The concept of perceived value an individual holds when evaluating travel experience is then discussed. The summary section will pro vide a conclusion of this chapter.2.1 Volunteering vs. Volunteer TourismVolunteer tourism, or also known as Voluntourism or volunteer vacation, actually combined two major elements which obviously are volunteering and travelling. More accurately, it contains the motivations of both volunteering and travelling sides and shows how they pertain to and interplay with each other.2.1.1 VolunteeringVolunteering is widely perceived and define as freely chosen and generally providing aids and services for the host community simultaneously without any incentive to gain any financial rewards from them (Beighbeder, 1991 saucy wave Til, 1979 cited in Stebbins, 1982). Supposedly volunteering or voluntary service is both beneficial to the community and the well-being of the volunteers (Cnaan et al., 1996 Stebbins, 1982) since it could build up a social network and develop a mutual understanding, friendship and adventurousness between each other (Gillette, 1968 Wearing, 2001, 2004). Volunteerin g may realise volunteers in acquiring skills such as communication skills, teamwork and social skills which would absolutely be multipurpose for their career (Broad, 2003 Brown Lehto, 2005). It provokes participants contemplation, encourages their concerns for others, offers them with an opportunity to develop an interest and creates a sense of deep individualised fulfillment (Stebbins Graham, 2004). Stebbins (1992) also suggests that volunteering may achieve volunteers self-actualization, recreation or renewal of self and feelings of accomplishment. The volunteer is the one who gains mutual learning, friendship and adventure (Gillette, 1968). Volunteers from all age groups will most credibly feel happier and less(prenominal) depressed. Neulinger (1982) and Henderson (1984) both noted that volunteerism and leisure fulfil higher level needs such as self-esteem, belonging and self-actualization.2.1.2 Volunteer TourismVolunteer tourism is slightly like an expansion of volunteer ing. Undoubtedly it includes the motivation of volunteering and, meanwhile, involves desires or incentives of travel. The term volunteer tourism intends to the tourists who organize to provide voluntary service during their vacations which is draw by Wearing (2001)aiding or alleviating the material mendicancy of some groups in family, the restoration of certain environments, or research into aspects of society or environmentIn fact, the definition of volunteer tourism has become gradually ambiguous since a large number of individuals, who are willing to spend most of the time during vacation on volunteering, may not perceive themselves as volunteer tourists. However, there is a conceptual framework of volunteer tourism developed to forkify volunteer tourists into different classes (Callanan Thomas, 2005). The framework was drawn on another framework related to ecology (Sylvan, 1985 cited in Callanan Thomas, 2005, pp. 196-197). It mainly divided volunteer tourists into shallow, intermediate and deep class based on the duration of their trips, their required skills or qualifications, degree of both passive and active involvement, level of contribution to the host communities and focus of the experience.Another expressive style to classify the volunteer tourists basically depends on their mindsets. Volunteer tourists should be further divided into two types. Some of them may be willing to spend most of or even all of their holidays on volunteering, they, therefore, are identified as volunteer-minded tourists. The other type of volunteer tourists are identified as vacation-minded tourists who will possibly just treat volunteering as a short-term, may be only a half-day or up to three days out of a trip, act during their vacation. (Brown Morrison, 2003 Brown Lehto, 2005, p. 480).2.2 MotivationAs motivation is a very significant variable in the contribution of explaining peoples travel behavior, this section aims at providing a world-wide literature revi ew on tourism motivation and volunteer motivation. The definitions of motivation and tourism motivation will first be given, followed by a explanation of the development of motivational theories.2.2.1 Travel MotivationTo understand travel motivation, a variety of scales and theories have been proposed and empirically tested in the tourism literature. Many researchers have used motivational theory to try to interpret the motivations of tourists. Wahab (1975) argued that travel motivation is so basic, essential and fundamental while doing tourism studies or tourism development. Generally, motivation is usually defined as the driving force behind all actions (Crompton, 1979 Fodness, 1994). At the meantime, motivation would be a key factor influencing ones travel decisions and be closely related to their psychological needs to explore something they have never met in their floor countries. Travel motivations will probably be affected by any changes occurred in ones lifetime stages. H owever, travellers may commonly be turnd by a certain number of motivators other than just one. (Swarbrooke and Horner, 2003).2.2.2 Tourism Motivation TheoriesA few definitions have been developed for tourism motivation. Dann (1981 cited in Snepenger et al., 2006, p.140) stated that tourism motivation isa meaningful state of mind which adequately disposes an actor or a group of actors to travel, and which is subsequently interpretable by others as a valid explanation for such a decisionCrompton and McKay (1997) built their definition of tourism motivation on those suggested by Crompton (1979) and Iso-Ahola (1989 cited in Crompton McKay, 1997). Crompton and McKay (1997, p.427) which include the concept of optimal arousal level. For example, homeostasis (Snepenger et al., 2006) helped describe tourism motivation asa dynamic butt on of internal psychological factors that generate a state of tension or disequilibrium within individuals.Moreover, Fodness (1994) and Crompton (1979) agr eed and suggested that more knowledge of tourism motivation were necessary to swear out tourism marketers in understanding individuals travel patterns so that they could develop and promote tourism products according to customers needs and wants.Over the years, a myriad of tourism motivational theories have been developed. There are some self-aggrandising theories which contribute to a better understanding of why individuals choose to travel.2.2.3 Motivation Theory Maslows Hierarchy of askWhen discussing motivation theory, Maslows five-stage hierarchy of needs ought to be of the utmost importance. It emphazizes human needs could be differentiated into five different levels from extrinsic to intrinsic needs. These five levels are also in hierarchical order of increasing motivational importance. From the least to the most importance, they are physiological, safety, social, self-esteem and self-actualization need (Maslow, 1970). This hierarchy could be highly related to the travel industry since it mentioned individuals will less likely be interested in high-level needs if they cannot meet their physiological and safety needs. It implies the individuals will less likely be interested in travel. Additionally, Self-actualization could be considered the end or goal of leisure (Mill Morrison, 2002). Analyzing all five stages can derive some potential hints and clues to help understand the motivation of volunteer tourism.2.2.4 Motivation Theory Travel Career Ladder (TCL)TCL is actually partly based on the Maslows Hierarchy of needs. According to TCL, tourists who own more experience would more probably seek satisfaction of higher needs (Pearce, 1991 Ryan, 1998). It reflects travel motives are changing according to life interbreed and accumulated travel experience (Ryan, 1998 Schewe, 1988) and describes travellers motivation as consisting of five different levels, respectively they are relaxation, safety or security, relationship, self-esteem and development and self-actualization or fulfillment need. Normally travelers are not dominated by only a level of need but a set of needs. They will not forever remain in the same stage and will probably descend as well as ascend on the ladder.2.2.5 Push and Pull Factors draw off the two hierarchical needs of human mentioned above, there is a two-tiered scheme of motivational factors, push and pull factors. Several theories also refer to these two factors to carry out, for example, Iso-Ahola personal interpersonal motives. Push factors mean all social-psychological motives which push individuals to go travelling. They are intangible and more like intrinsic desires of individuals, for instance, relaxation and exploration. On the other hand, pull factors mean those external forces which affect or attract individuals to travel to fulfill their identified wants. Any tangible things including the architectures, historical resources and the intangible elements including local culture, the attraction of the destination itself can also arouse travellers interest (Andreu, Bigne Copper, 2000). However, a travel is normally occurred based on the reason why individuals would like to leave their home country rather than the appeal of the destination which lure the travellers to visit. Travellers motives and behavior are markedly self-oriented (Witt Wright, 1992). Obviously, the push and pull factors may not be perceived appropriate to understand the motivation of volunteer tourism because2.2.6 Motivation of volunteers being engaged in voluntary services self-sacrifice (Bussell Forbes, 2002 Callanan Thomas, 2005) and doing something meaningful (Cnaan Goldberg-Glen, 1991 cited in Ryan, Kaplan Grese, 2001) are believed to be the central motives for individuals to participate in volunteer work. Individuals who desire to assist others are more likely to become volunteers. However, egoism may probably be included in the motivation of volunteers as well (Bussell Forbes, 2002 Ryan, Kaplan Grese, 2001). Participating in voluntary work can actually provide individuals with change to satisfy their social and psychological needs (Cnaan Goldberg-Glen, 1991 cited in Bussell Forbes, 2002). The first self-interested motivation is social which involves volunteering together with ones family members and old friends to strengthen kinship and friendship (Bruyere Rappe, 2007 Ryan, Kaplan Grese, 2001) as well as meeting new people with similar interests.The next motivation is learning and career. Volunteers may learn deeper about the natural environment (Bruyere Rappe, 2007) develop new skills and abilities which may be useful with ones career (Broad, 2003) obtain job-related experience and explore career opportunities which may aid future employment or career advancement (Bruyere Rappe, 2007 Riecken, Babakus Yavas, 1994 cited in Bussell Forbes, 2002)Another prominent motivation of volunteer is values and esteem. Volunteers can share their core values and thoughts with o ther people (Bruyere Rappe, 2007 Clary Snyder, 1999) gain a sense of self-worth as well as boosting self-esteem (Bruyere Rappe, 2007 Bussell Forbes, 2002).Some of the less obvious reasons for people to volunteer may include a desire to wear uniforms which symbolize authority, mixing with celebrities, travel opportunities (Wilson Pimm, 1996) and religious involvement (Mattis et al., 2000).2.3 Previous Related Research on Volunteer TourismHaving looked at travel motivation and volunteer motivation individually, it is necessary to review the previous studies on volunteer tourism. A very similar research on the motives and benefits of volunteer vacationers in the United States was done by Brown and Lehto (2005). They sedulous focus group and in-depth personal interviews as their selective information collection methods to gain a deeper understanding of this rarely researched phenomenon. The results showed that there were four main motives of why people volunteer while taking a lei sure trip. First, travellers were cause to volunteer because they would have precious opportunities to interact with local people and immerse oneself in the local culture and community (Brown Lehto, 2005, p.487) Second, volunteer tourism was seen as a way to give back and make a difference in others lives, especially the less unfortunate. Third, travellers sought camaraderie on volunteer vacation trips. They were motivated by the fact that they would be able to make friends with people with common interests, values and minds. Fourth, volunteer tourism was perceived as an educational opportunity for children. It was believed that the volunteer experience would instil the value of giving to the younger generation in their lives. Another related motive was the opportunity to build a better bonding between parents and children.The major benefits of participating in volunteer tourism found in this research were greater satisfaction with the overall travel experience, self-fulfilment, o pportunities to directly interact with the local community, the meaningful experience and wonderful memories, personal growth and enhancement of family relationships, Among the aforementioned benefits, self-fulfilment and personal growth were believed to have an enduring effect on individuals after the volunteer vacation trips.A case study conducted by Broad (2003) investigated the relationship between volunteers, their volunteering and the outcomes and impacts at the Gibbon Rehabilitation Project (GRP) in Phuket. Four categories of motivation were identified in this study using qualitative method. Volunteers participated in the GRP because they wanted to travel to a different country and learn something about the country. They would like to obtain experience with reference to their studies and future career plans and they support conservation based on altruism. (Broad, 2003, pp.66-67). Their self-interested motivation was related to meeting like-minded people or developing their pe rsonalities. Her findings supported Gazleys (2001, cited in Broad, 2003) claim that both volunteer motivation and tourism motivation may apply to volunteer tourism.Similarly, it was found in Broads (2003) study that the volunteer travel experience had inspired some changes in the participants and their life. The experience was a life turning point for some of the volunteers, for instance, finding a career direction or entering into relationships with the locals. Other volunteers indicated that they had gained more confidence, knowledge and skills, and learned more about themselves. They had also developed a different view of life and the world.2.4 Chapter SummaryChapter 3 MethodologyThe purpose of this research is to explore the motivations, constraints and how volunteer travel experiences influence travel decision among volunteer travellers. Since little academic research had been conducted in this area, especially in the Asia-Pacific context, no confirmed theories or methods were available to be adopt for this study (Brown Lehto, 2005). An exploratory study thereby seems appropriate to offer a better understanding of this research topic. The methodological issues were discussed in four sections (1) research design, (2) data collection, (3) data analysis and, (4) limitations.3.1 Research DesignThis is an exploratory research which is inductive in nature. The study used a qualitative approach with in-depth interviews (Brown Lehto, 2005). Qualitative research approach helped to gain more knowledge as to how individuals gave meaning to their volunteer vacation experiences (Halpenny Caisse, 2003). Simultaneously in-depth interviews provoked interviewees to express their thoughts which were neglected by marketers before so they can actually cater to the potential needs. (Patton, 1990 Jenning, 2001). The data gathered were helpful to reveal the what. how and, more importantly, explore the why for individuals to participate in volunteer travel (Saunders, Lewis Thornhill, 2007). The value of the knowledge is largely based on the context and the use of the knowledge. (Steinar, 1996) It can, for example, be used to examine travellers attitude towards volunteer travel, and the knowledge gained used to motivate leisure travellers to join volunteer travel.In addition, the interviews embraced different kinds of interview questions so as to deeply examine why potential travellers in Hong Kong are motivated to join the volunteer travel. Introducing questions were used since such open-ended questions may3.2 Data collectionSince it was improbable to identify and interview all volunteer travellers in Hong Kong, the interviewees were chosen from a population of Hong Kong residents who had participated in any volunteer travel before. Snowball sampling technique was used to collect the data until the required sample surface was reached (Jenning, 2001). There were 8 desirable interviewees invited to participate in the individual interview which fitted t he required sample size determined by theoretical sampling prescript (Glaser, 1992). Furthermore, the interview process lasted till the theoretical saturation, where no new ideas or themes could be developed.3.3 Data AnalysisThe personal interviews were transcribed word for word immediately. owe to the time limit, the researcher translated the Cantonese discussions directly into written English. The transcripts3.4 LimitationsFundamentally people, time and place would be the major limitation of the research. Finding appropriate interviewees was the first to be interested so the researcher kept asking referrals from friends. After finding the right people, the researcher needed to make respective appointments with all interviewees in terms of unoriginal data were so limited that could not sufficiently cater to the needs of this research, detailed and in-depth data and descriptions were therefore required (Geertz, 1973 Jenning, 2001). However, secondary data sourced from newspapers, a cademic journals, websites and books were so useful to provide understandings of initial concepts.Chapter 4 Research FindingsDevelopment of volunteer tourism in Hong Kong is still in its infancy at this stage. Hence, the aims of this chapter are to look into and have a better understanding of the motivation and constraints of repeat volunteer travellers. In addition to exploring how the experience influence their leisure travel decisions. Findings of aforementioned octad in-depth interviews were concluded in terms of three research objectives. Original statements of the interviewees were used as evidence to support each concept.4.1 Motivations of repeated participation in volunteer travelAll of the interviewees showed that they are very likely to attend volunteer travel again. There were six major motivational factors found which can be dissected by and highly related to Maslows Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow, 1970). Altruism and broadening personal horizons can be defined as self-actu alization, which is of the highest level of the hierarchy. Furthermore, changes of self-image can be defined as self-esteem, which is positioned in the second highest level whilst desire for escaping from daily bustling life and enhancement of social life belong to belongingness and love, which is of the pump level of the hierarchy. Apart from those could be analysed by the Maslows Hierarchy of Needs, previous experience can either be one of the motives for taking volunteer travel again.4.1.1 AltruismPersonal altruistic desire for providing others with attention and sympathy was stated by the interviewees as an important factor motivating them to partake in volunteer travel. v interviewees considered it their first priority whilst other three interviewees considered it the second motivation. They volunteered, for example, to teach the local students, to provide necessities, to take care of the elderly and children, to bring happiness, to show love, and to encourage people to live under a stern environment. Three interviewees shared that it helped the organization to further understand the genuine needs amongst the locals, so more effective assistance could be provided in the future.I can help others or bring them (the local) caring and happiness to them. (Interviewee F)Most of their parents left them (local children) and work in other provinces, come back only one or two a year only. Theyre lack of parental love. (Interviewee A)One of the interviewee was eager to raise public awareness of the poverty gap between Mainland China communities and Hong Kong people.the number of participant is just 30, but if I spread the idea and my experience it would be many times than the number of participants. Perhaps, they know more after hearing from me, they are more interested in, and know the suffering of others in the world. Because I have my personal experience, it is more telling than the related TV episodes. (Interviewee E)So i think the children living in Hong Ko ng are having luxury lives. (Interviewee D)Similar concepts shared by all interviewees were meaningful because they mat happy with contributing to help and thus enhanced their sense of self-satisfaction and accomplishment. The word meaningful was mentioned at least once by each interviewee and three of them even emphasized this word for up to five times. It showed that participants looked for a meaningful experience in volunteer travel.I feel I gradually become kinder after volunteering every time as I am willing to help others even though I may not have contributed to the society a lot. Anyway, I learnt how to return the society rather than taking advantages from it. (Interviewee A)You can feel more satisfied with partaking in a volunteer trip and benefit much more from it than from ordinary travel., I